LIB RARY OFJ^O NGRESS. 

®]^ap. ?-- Soinjrin^t T|o. 

- Shelf ..-W 11 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



VEGETABLE FORGING 



PARTS I, II, III. 



Herbert G. Winkler, 



\( 

Coi^uMBis, Ohio. 



'..MAR 26 1 89^/. ^ 



The Wixkler Book Concern. 
1896. 



Entered according- to Act of Congress in the year 1896, 

By Herbert G. Winki^er, 

in the Office of the Librarian of Cong-ress at Washing-ton. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Asparag-us 68 

Beans 86 

Beds 120 

Benches 118 

Celery 85 

Cold Frames 150 

Cucumbers 49 

Eg-g- Plant 75 

Forcing- House, Cost of 94 

Glass 109 

Butted 112 

Glazing- Ill 

Strips : 113 

Hot-Beds 145 

Location 145 

Uses 146 

Construction 147 

Preparation for Planting- 148 

Hot Water Heating 126 

Iron Houses 103 

Lettuce 5 

Proper Temperature 7 

Lig-ht 8 

Soil 9 

Transplanting 12-16 

Varieties 13 

Preparing for Market 17 

Peas 88 

Radish 61 

Rheubarb 64 

Steam Heating 132 

Sub-Irrigation 136 

Tomato 18 

The House 20 

Sowing the Seed 21 

Transplanting 21 

Final Arrangement of Plants 22 



Trellis and Supports. 



Training and Pruning 24 

Pollination 27 

Soil and Fertilizers 31 

Tomato as a Spring and Early Summer Crop. 34 

Tomato Diseases 38 

Ventilators 115 

Water Bench 141 



PART I. 



MANAGEMENT OF 

GREENHOUSE 
CROPS. 



VEGETABLE FORCING. 



CHAPTER I. 
LETTUCE. 

TT^ERHAPS there is no other crop grown in 
\^ the greenhouse that is so profitable as the 
growing of lettuce. During the winter and 
spring months lettuce is always in good demand 
at very remunerative prices. Hundreds of acres 
of glass are devoted to the forcing of lettuce 
in the United States, and the area is continually 
increasing, although the prices received are far 
from what they used to be — yet under careful 
management it can be made quite a paying 
business. 

'' " B}^ going hack to the early history of 
lettuce we find that its native country is un- 
known, and from what species the garden varie- 
ties originated is merely guess work. Accord- 
ing to Herotodus it was in use 550 B. C, yet 
Pliny says the ancient Romans knew but one 
sort. In his day it was cultivated so as to be 
had at all times of the year, and even blanched 
it to make it more tender. In the privy purse 
expenses of Henry the eighth, in 1530, is men- 

*P. L. Henderson's Hand Book of Plants. 



6 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

tion of a reward to the gardener of York Place 
for bringing lettuce and cherries to Hampton 
Court. Gerard, in 1497, gives an account of 
eight sorts cultivated in his time. Parkenson, 
in 1629, says : 'There are so many sorts and so 
great diversitie of lettuce that I doubt I shall 
scarce be believed of a great many. For I doe 
in this chapter reckon up unto you eleven or 
twelve differing sorts ; some of little use, others 
of more, being more common and vulgar ; and 
some that are of excellent use and service, which 
are more rare and require more knowledge and 
care for ordering of them, as also of their time 
of spending, as some in spring, some in summer 
and some in winter. For all these sorts I shall 
need few descriptions, and only show you what 
kinds doe cabbage and which are loose, which of 
them are great or small, white, green or red, and 
which of them bear white seeds, and which of 
them black.' We have not space to quote the 
whole chapter, but will quote one more passage : 
' Virtues of the lettuce, viz : they all cool a hot 
and fainting stomach.' " 

Lettuce is the most popular of all vegetables 
grown under glass in this country. It grows 
rapidly, so that three crops can be taken from a 
house between September and April, and the 
demand for a choice product is always good. 
Lettuce is generally considered to be an easy 



IvETTUCE. 7 

crop to grow under glass, and yet it is a fact that 
few gardeners are entirely successful with the 
crop, year by year, particularly if the heading 
varieties are grown. 

Lettuce varies greatly in quality, and this 
variation is due in a very great measure to the 
immediate conditions under which it is grown. 
If the plant is very rank and has dark thick 
leaves, the quality is low. A good lettuce plant 
is yellowish in color upon delivery and the 
leaves are thin and brittle. The product should 
be wholly free from lice or green fly, and the 
tips of the leaves should show no tendency to 
wither or turn brown. If heading lettuce is 
grown the leaves should roll inward like cab- 
bage leaves, the heads should be compact and 
nearly globular and yellowish toward the core. 

PROPER TEnPERATURE. 

Success in growing lettuce depends very large- 
ly on the temperature at which the house is 
kept. If the house is kept too cool the lettuce 
will not make as rapid growth as it should in 
order to be tender and crisp. Lettuce that is 
grown under a very low temperature, thus re- 
tarding its maturity, will be tough and have a 
strong, bitter taste, and the color will not be at- 
tractive. Such lettuce is difficult to sell as there 
is no demand for it at any price. The temperature 



8 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

should not be too high, as this will induce in- 
sects and disease. The night temperature should 
not rise above 50°, while it may run as low as 
40° or even lower. The day temperature in the 
shade should range from 60° to 75°. At times it 
may vary somewhat from these figures, but we 
find that lettuce when grown at the above tem- 
perature will give the best results. A sudden 
change from a high to a low, or low to a high 
temperature is very injurious. The greatest 
care should be taken to keep a uniform degree. 

LIGHT, SOIL, PLANTING, &c. 

While a lettuce house must have an abund- 
ance of light, the plants do not suffer if they 
are some distance from the glass, and if they 
receive but little direct sunlight. The house 
should have an exposure toward the sun, and 
the frame work ought to be as light as possible, 
if the best results are to be obtained ; but diffused 
light is as good as the direct burning ra^^s of the 
sun. It should be said, however, that good let- 
tuce may often be grown in heavy, rather dark 
houses, but more care is required, the results 
are less certain and there is special difiicult}^ in 
growing heading varities to perfection. 

Our experience has fully demonstrated the 
superiority of solid earth beds over benches for 
lettuce. We have had good crops in benches, 



LETTUCE. 9 

but they have required special attention to heat- 
ing and watering, and even then the results are 
generally precarious. If, however, the benches 
have no bottom heat — that is, if there is no 
heating pipes next to them and if the sides are 
open — very good results, particularly with the 
non-heading varieties may be had from year to 
year. When pressed for room the young plants 
are sometimes pricked off into 3-inch or 4-inch 
pots, these pots are set in unoccupied spaces 
amongst the other plants. Very good lettuce 
can be grown in this way, although it is scarcely 
practicable in large commercial houses. 

Probably no forced vegetable is so much in- 
fluenced by soil as the lettuce, and no doubt 
more failures are to be ascribed to uncongenial 
soil than to any other single cause. Fortunately 
this matter has been made the subject of the 
most admirable study by Galloway, who finds 
that the famous heading lettuce of the Boston 
gardens can be grown to perfection only in soils 
which contain much sand and very little clay 
and silt. The soil allows the water to settle 
deeply into it and then holds it without percola- 
tion; the surface is dry, preventing the occur- 
rence of rot ; the roots forage far and wide, and 
the plant food is quickly available. The full 
character of the soil used by the Boston growers 
are set forth as follows by Galloway : ^' Loose 



10 VEGETABI.E FORCING. 

at all times, regardless of treatment, it being 
possible to push the arm into it to the depth of 
twenty inches or more. Never puddles when 
worked, no matter how wet. Clods or lumps 
never form. A four inch dressing of manure 
when spaded in ten inches deep will be com- 
pletely disintegrated in six or eight weeks. 
Sufficient water may be added the ist of Sep- 
tember when the first crop is started, to carry 
through two crops and a part of a third without 
additional applications, except very light ones 
merely to keep the leaves moist and to induce a 
movement of the moisture at the bottom of the 
bed toward the top, where it will come in contact 
with most of the roots. The surface to the depth 
of an inch dries out quickly and this has an im- 
portant bearing on the prevention of wet rot of 
the lower leaves. The active working roots of 
the plants are found throughout the entire depth 
of soil, even if it exceeds thirty inches.'' 

Galloway was able to prepare soil which gave 
practically the same results as that which he 
imported from Boston. This soil was made as 
follows: "Mixture of two parts of drift sand 
and one part of greenhouse soil. The sand was 
obtained from the valley of a stream near by, 
which frequently overflowed its banks, flooding 
the spot where the material was found. The 
greenhouse soil was a mixture consisting of one 



. IvETTUCE. 11 

part of the ordinary clay, gneiss soil of the 
region and two parts of well rotted manure. Such 
soil w411 grow twenty bushels of wheat per acre 
without fertilization." 

It is always essential to the best lettuce grow- 
ing to avoid heavy soils. These soils usually 
lose their water quickly, necessitating frequent 
watering which keeps the surface wet and in- 
creases danger from damping-off and rot. These 
soils soon become hard, compact and dead, and 
the plants grow slowly with thick, tough leaves. 
If the lettuce crop is to be taken off in the early 
part of November, from seven to ten weeks 
should be counted from the sowing of the seed 
to the deliver}^ of the product. A mid-winter 
crop may require two to four weeks longer. 
The time may be shortened ten days to two 
weeks by the use of the electric arc light hung 
directly over the house. A single ordinary 
street lamp of 2000 normal candle power will be 
sufiicient for a house twenty feet or more wide 
and seventy feet long if it is so hung that the 
house is uniformly lighted throughout. 

The first sowing for house lettuce is usually 
made about the first of September and the crop 
should be off in November. We sow the seed 
in flats or shallow boxes, preferably prick off the 
plants about four inches apart into other flats 
when they are two weeks old and transplant 



12 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

them into the beds, from six to ten inches apart, 
each way, when they are about five weeks from 
the seed. 

Some growers omit the pricking off into other 
flats simply thinning out the plants where they 
stand and transferring them from the original 
flat direct to the permanent bed ; but better and 
quicker results are obtained if the extra hand- 
ling is given. We have found that it pays to 
transplant twice before the plants are set in the 
permanent beds. The first transplanting being 
made when the plants are only a few days old. 
When transplanted while the plants are so small 
they can be set very close together and thus save 
considerable space. 

The second transplanting is made as soon as 
the plants begin to crowd. If the plants are 
ready to be set in the permanent bed before the 
bed is empty, the flats should be placed in a 
cooler place, or set under the benches for a few 
days. Plants can be left under the benches for 
a week, if they are not kept too moist, without 
any danger. 

Four or six weeks after the first seed is sown 
another sowing is made in flats for the purpose 
of taking the place of the first crop, and when a 
third crop is to be grown another sowing should 
be made four or five weeks after the second 
sowing. 



LETTUCE. 13 

VARIETIES. 

Of the vast number of varieties of lettuce there 
are but few suitable for forcing. The leading 
ones at present (1896) are the Boston Market or 
White Seeded Tennis Ball, Simpson and Grand 
Rapids. About two-thirds of all the lettuce 
grown under glass is of the above named varie- 
ties ; but there are numerous other varieties that 
are grown very successfully. In selecting the 
varieties the demand of the market should be 
considered. Some markets demand the headed 
varieties, while others prefer the loose growing 
sorts ; some are partial to the small heads or 
clusters, while others demand the largest that can 
be grown. In some markets there is about an 
equal demand for all the varieties that are of any 
account, in fact they don't care anything about 
the variety, they simply want crisp, tender let- 
tuce. Where the market does not demand any 
special variety, the quickest healthy growing 
sorts should be selected. Generally speaking, 
the kinds that require least bed space are the 
ones that are most profitable. We will give a 
brief description of a few of the leading varieties 
that are most suitable for forcing : 

GRAND RAPIDS. 

This variety developed at Grand Rapids, 
Michigan, and is especially adapted to green- 



14 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

house culture in winter. It is the result of fif- 
teen years selection from the Black Seeded 
Simpson, which has generally been recognized 
as the standard for forcing for house use. It is 
superior to, and more beautiful in, appearance 
than the Simpson. 

It is of a very rapid, upright growth and may 
be planted close ; not liable to rot ; standing 
several days after being ready to cut without in- 
jury ; retains its freshness a long time after be- 
ing cut, hence much sought after by dealers and 
especially shippers ; the quality is very desirable. 
It does not form a solid head, but the leaves 
grow in a large loose cluster, hence makes a 
very beautiful appearance when properly pre- 
pared for market. 

EARLY CURLED SIMPSON. 

This is still the most generally useful variety 
for all purposes. Properly speaking, it does not 
head, but forms a close, compact mass of leaves, 
which are of a yellowish shade of green, and 
much curled. This peculiarity allows it to 
mature quicker than varieties that form firm 
heads. It is the kind that is largely planted in 
cold frames ; it is also largely grown as an early 
open air variety, between the rows of the cab-^ 
bage crop. 



LETTUCE. IS 

BLACK SEEDED SIMPSON. 

Like the Curled Simpson, this variety does 
not form a head proper, but it differs from the 
preceding in being much lighter colored, the 
leaves being creamy yellow ; it attains a size 
nearly double that of the Curled Simpson. It 
stands the summer heat well, while it is equally 
suited for forcing. On account of its large size^ 
however, it might not, under some circumstances, 
prove so profitable as a strictly forcing sort, such 
as the Grand Rapids, Boston Market, &c. 

BLACK SEEDED TENNIS BALL. 

A favorite forcing variety, and, as the name 
indicates, forming a hard head. It makes few 
outer leaves, and for this reason, can be placed 
quite close under glass — from six to seven inches 
apart. This is a very desirable characteristic, 
as glass covered area is very valuable. This 
variety is largely used in hot beds and cold 
frames. 

BOSTON MARKET OR WHITE SEEDED TENNIS BALL. 

This is an improved variety of the Tennis 
Ball which attains a larger size. It grows very 
compact, is beautifully white and crisp, and is 
one of the best varieties for forcing. 

PARIS WHITE COS. 

Although the Cos varieties of lettuce are not 
so suitable for our climate (as they tend too 



16 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

quickly to run to seed) as the varieties previ- 
ously mentioned, yet they are sometimes grown 
in the early spring and fall, for private use. In 
shape, they differ materially from the other 
varieties, the head being elongated and of coni- 
cal form, eight or nine inches in height, and five 
or six inches in diameter. The color of this 
variety is yellowish green. To be had in per- 
fection, it requires to be tied up, to insure 
blanching. Millions of this variety are annually 
grown to supply the markets of London alone, 
where it is preferred to all other varieties. 

TRANSPLANTING TO PERMANENT BEDS. 

This is quite an important operation, and most 
growers pay too little attention to it, that is, they 
do not realize the importance of using every 
means to give the plants a good start. 

Before taken from the flats, they should be 
set in the water bench and thoroughly soaked. 
The plants should be graded into different sizes, 
so as not to have large and small plants together 
in the same bed. All the plants in any certain 
section of a bed, should mature at the same time, 
so as not to have any vacant spaces. 

After the plants have been set, they should 
receive a thorough watering. If they have been 
properly transplanted, they will show no signs 
of wilting, but will start to grow immediately. 



LETTUCE. 17 

The plain of setting most generally followed, 
is to set in squares, but I prefer to set them in 
the diamond shape. By this plan, the number 
of plants that can be set on a given space, is 
increased one half. 

PREPARING AND PACKING FOR HARKET. 

Lettuce should be cut early in the day, washed 
and let drain before packing. For our home 
market, we pack in the ordinary half bushel split 
basket. The basket is stood on end and the 
stalks laid in, top end toward the bottom of the 
basket. When packed in this way, it will retain 
the moisture and thus keep fresh for a greater 
length of time than w^hen packed in any othel* 
way. When packing to ship, we use barrels or 
boxes, that will hold about one hundred pounds. 
If a larger amount is packed together, there is 
danger of heating. 

The barrels or boxes should be well ventilated, 
by boring holes in the sides and ends. If the 
lettuce is shipped during the cold winter months, 
and there is danger of freezing, the boxes 
should be lined with paper or some other good 
non-conductor. 



CHAPTER II. 

TOIVIATO.= 

^^T^^HE tomato was first introduced into Eng- 
J^ land in 1596, and it was for many years 
grown only as an ornamental plant, and for its 
medicinal value. In the earlier days of its his- 
tory we find the name of Love Apple instead of 
tomato, applied to this vegetable. In 1629, 
Parkinson describes the tomato as follows : "In 
hot countries where they naturely growe, they 
are much eaten by the people to cool and quench 
the heat and thirst of their hot stomachs. The 
apples are also boyled or infused in oyle in the 
sunne." 

Italy was the first country to grow the tomato 
as a vegetable, and soon after England and 
France began its cultivation ; in England, how- 
ever, it is chiefly grown under glass, as their 
summers are not warm enough to ripen the fruit 
to anything like perfection. The tomato has 
not been in general use in this country for more 
than fifty or sixty years, and our choice varieties 
are of recent introduction. Year by year new 
varieties obtained by selection from the best varie- 
ties are offered to the public, "each one claiming 

*Heuderson's Hand Book of Plants. 

18 



TOMATO. 19 

to be superior in earliness and productiveness ; 
the varieties of late introduction are undoubtedly 
superior to the older sorts, earliness, solidity and 
productiveness being the great desiderata." 

The tomato is one of the most important of 
all garden products ; hundreds of acres are now 
planted with it in the vicinity of all large cities, 
and the facility with which it is managed places 
it readily under the control of the least experi- 
enced, that is in out-door culture. 

During the last few years tomatoes have been 
grown quite successfully in this country under 
glass, both as a mid-winter crop and as a spring 
and early summer crop. The winter forcing of 
tomatoes promises to be quite an important in- 
dustry in the near future, although at present it 
is little understood by most gardeners and the 
literature on the subject is scarce and unsatis- 
factory. Yet it is becoming more common year 
by year, in all the older parts of the country, 
especially in and around the suburbs of all the 
larger cities where the winters are cool. 

The demand for winter tomatoes is very good 
and constantly increasing. The price ranges 
from thirty to eighty cents per pound, according 
to quality and time of ripening. A high tempera- 
ture and an abundance of sunshine are essential 
to force the crop to perfection, but under good 
management and care in growing the profits are 



20 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

indeed very remunerative. It is one of the 
most interesting and satisfactory enterprises for 
the Horticulturist during the dull winter months. 

THE HOUSE. 

Almost an}' forcing house that is light, tight 
and has sufficient pipes to maintain a high tem- 
perature throughout the coldest part of the 3^ear, 
is suitable. It should be of a sufficient height 
to allow proper training of the plants. The 
frame should be as light as possible and main- 
tain the strength of the house. For further 
description see chapter on houses. 

Tomatoes require the direct sunlight to do 
well. When the plants are shaded in any way, 
they will not produce fruit, although they will 
produce strong, healthy, vigorous growth. 

The ill effects of shade are visible upon the 
north side of benches in houses running east 
and west, where the plants are shaded somewhat 
by the center of the house. 

During the middle of winter it often happens 
that the north bench produces no more than half 
as much fruit as the plants in direct sunlight. 
The plants in partial shade grow^ as well and as 
large as those in full sun, and they often blossom 
well, but the fruit does not set. 

The tomato house should be kept at a tempera- 
ture ranging from 60^ to 65° at night and ten 



TOMATO. 21 

degrees higher on dull days. On bright days it 
may be allowed to run higher, go° or even loo^ 
will do no injury, if plenty of ventilation is 
given. We always begin to ventilate when the 
thermometer shows 70°. 

SOWING THE SEED AND TRANSPLANTING. 

If it is desired to have the plants in full bear- 
ing during the holidays, the seed should be 
sown about the loth of August. The seed boxes 
should be filled with light, rich soil, pulverized 
fine ; mark off the rows, two inches apart and a 
quarter of an inch deep; drill the seed rather 
.thick in the rows ; smooth over the surface and 
firm gently with the hand ; place the flats in the 
water bench and irrigate. When they are thor- 
oughly moist, place them over a brisk bottom 
heat, for tomato seed requires a high tempera- 
ture to germinate. When the plants are about two 
inches high, prick off into other flats, setting the 
plants about two and one half or three inches 
apart. Leave in flats until they begin to crowd ^ 
then transplant into four inch pots, where they 
remain until planted into permanent beds or 
boxes. 

FINAL ARRANQEHENT OF PLANTS. 

This depends much on the arrangement of 
benches, heating and height of house. We have 
had excellent success by setting the plants about 



22 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

eighteen inches apart in solid beds as well as in 
raised benches. 

In bulletin 28 of Cornell University, Mr. 
Bailey says : 

"They may be planted in the ground or floor 
of the house, but I think that this is not desir- 
able as it does not allow of the application of 
bottom heat and the plants grow slowly: and it 
is frequently an advantage to shift the plants 
somewhat during subsequent treatment. 

"I prefer to grow them over brisk bottom heat, 
and it is necessary, therefore, to place them upon 
benches. The plants may be grown in shallow 
beds upon the benches, or in boxes or pots. 
Altogether I prefer 18-inch square boxes, al- 
though we have had excellent success in beds. 

"The boxes are placed ten inches or one foot 
apart and four plants are set in each box, which 
are 18 inches square. A plant, therefore, oc- 
cupies about one and one-half square feet of 
floor space. We have grown then in lo-inch 
square boxes and also in lo-inch pots, but these 
dry out so quickly that we do not like them. 
Our boxes are a foot deep ; one or two narrow 
cracks are left in the bottom ; a good layer of 
potshreds or clinkers are placed in the bottom for 
drainage, and the box is then filled two-thirds 
full of soil. When the fruit begins to set, the 
box is nearly filled with rich soil and manure. 



TOMATO. 23 

The object of not filling the box at first is to 
confine the roots in a smaller space and therefore 
hasten fruitfulness — perhaps an imaginary ad- 
vantage — but more particularly to allow of an 
additional stimulus to be given the plant at 
fruiting time." 

We think this plan of Mr. Bailey's has some 
advantage, but we have never tried it in our 
houses. We always set our plants in the beds 
and have met with success each year. In our 
houses they do as well in solid beds where there 
is no bottom heat, as in raised beds with four 
Straus of one and one-fourth inch steam pipes 
under them. 

TRELLIS AND SUPPORTS. 

• 

Different modes of constructing trellis have 
been adopted. It is not essential which is used, 
but the cheapest and most substantial is to be 
preferred. Stakes may be driven by the side of 
each plant — common lath will answer the pur- 
pose very nicely — and they are quite cheap and 
durable. Another method, used where the house 
is not too high and the plants are set in beds, is to 
stretch a wire on the surface of the bed along 
the rows of plants, binder twine is tied to the 
wire at each plant and fastened to an eye screw 
in the sash bar. This trellis has much to rec- 
ommend it, the plants are not tied to the strings 



24 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

but are simply twined around them, thus saving 
considerable labor. 

When the plants are set in boxes the strings 
may be fastened to the sides of the boxes in 
place of having a wire. An excellent plan is to 
set every forty or fifty feet a. strong, substantial 
post or iron rod, deep into the soil, leaving four 
feet above ground, at the top of these posts is 
stretched a ware and at each plant a lath is stuck, 
the top being tied to the wnre. The plants are 
then tied to lath as often as need be. 

TRAINING AND PRUNING. 

This is a ver}^ important part of the w^ork. 
Tomatoes under glass viust be trained and 
pruned, not only to increase the size and earli- 
ness of the fruit, but to get the largest yield 
possible on the smallest space, and to keep the 
plants in good shape. It has been found that 
single stem training wall produce the earliest as 
well as the most fruit per square foot of ground 
surface. " The nature of the tomato is not to 
confine itself to a single stem, and when com- 
pelled to do so its efforts to grow side branches 
are very persistent. Not only will sprouts come 
out at the axil of each leaf, but the ends of the 
blossom stalks wall develop into branches and 
even the upper surface of the main vein of the 
leaves wall throw out sprouts. All of these 



TOMATO. 25 

must be taken off or there will be a mass of 
tangled vines if the plants are very close to- 
gether." 

When the plant is twelve or fifteen inches 
high it should be fastened to its support by 
means of a soft cord or otherwise ; care being 
taken to remove all the side shoots as they make 
their appearance, and the main stem is stopped 
or pinched off as soon as it reaches the glass, if 
not before. In houses of sufficient height the 
plants may be allowed to grow six or eight feet, 
if preferred. During the dull, cloudy days of 
mid-winter it is necessary to remove a portion of 
the foliage in order to let in plenty of light, this 
can be done without any injury to the growth of 
the plant. 

The leaves on the lower portion of the plants 
die when the fruit begins to form and should be 
removed. I have often seen in our houses, 
healthy, vigorous plants in full bearing entirely 
destitute of leaves for two feet from the ground. 

iVfter the fruit has set it grows very rapidly 
and the weight increases to such an extent that 
the flower stock will break if it is not supported. 
This can be done by passing a string around a 
joint on the main stem and under the middle of 
the cluster. 

x\ row of tomato plants may be planted along 
the north wall of a house occupied by other 



26 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

plants and trained np the wall. Being thus 
situated they will not shade the other crops and 
in a large house quite a number can be grown. 

I have heard of growers allowing plants to be 
trained along the ridge pole and sash bars, but I 
am sure this would not be profitable as it would 
shade the other plants in the house to such an 
extent that the}^ would not mature well. 

The tomato does not require so much water as 
most other plants, that is, during the winter 
forcing. The soil should not be drenched, yet 
it should be pretty thoroughly soaked at each 
watering, and the waterings not repeated so 
often. When the plants are young and before 
the fruit begins to set, the atmosphere may be 
kept moist, especially on bright days when the 
walks may be sprinkled. A moist atmosphere 
is detrimental to the. Red Spider, and every pre- 
caution should be taken to keep the plants free 
from this pest, for it cannot be overcome after 
the fruit begins to set ; when the house must 
contain a dry atmosphere. Watering depends 
somewhat upon the condition of the weather 
and character of soil used in the beds. No 
definite rule can be laid down. 



TOMATO. 27 

POLLINATION. 

Mr. Bailey, in Bull. 28 of Cornell University 
experiment station, says : 

" When the flowers begin to appear the atmos- 
phere must be keep dry during the brighter 
part of the da}^ in order to facilitate pollination. 
The pollen is discharged most profusely on dry 
sunny days. In the short dull days of mid- 
winter some artificial aid must be given the 
flowers to enable them to set. The common 
practice is to tap the plants sharply several limes 
during the middle of the day with a padded 
stick. This practice is perhaps better than 
nothing, although tests which we have made 
upon the value of this operation as compared 
with no attention were entirely indifferent in 
results. I am strongl}^ of the opinion that it 
will pay the commercial grower to transfer the 
pollen by hand during mid- winter; at this time 
the flowers are most likely to fail and the pro- 
duct is most valuable; and the tests which I 
am about to report concerning the influences of 
different quantities of pollen strengthen this 
advice. There are various methods of pollinat- 
ing the flowers. The most expeditious and sat- 
isfactory method which I know is to knock the 
pollen from the flowers, catching it in a spoon, 
watch glass or other receptacle and then dipping 
the stigmas of the same or other flowers into it. 



28 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

There is a time in the life of the flower when 
the pollen falls out readily if the air is dry 
enough to hold dust. This is when the flower 
is fully expanded and somewhat past its prime. 
The flower is tapped lightly with a lead pencil 
and the light \^ellow powder falls out freely." 

" I am glad to give the experience of C. J. 
Pennock, Kennett Square, Penn., a Cornell gradu- 
ate, upon this point. Mr. Pennock grows winter 
tomatoes for market, and he writes me as fol- 
lows, concerning the pollination of the flowers: 

' During the short davs of winter I pollinate 
carefully every day, and I consider the operation 
necessary. I use a tool of my own make. It is 
a light piece of wood, i6 inches long and one 
half inch square, one end of which has a slight 
saucer-like depression. This stick is held in the 
left hand with the depression under the blossom 
to be pollinated. Another light stick or reed is 
nsed to tap the blossom and shake out the pollen, 
the ends of the pistils being pressed into the 
accumulated pollen in the depression at the same 
time. On a sunny day, when the house is dry, 
the operation can be performed rapidly. I have 
tried jarring the plants, and have seen a brush 
nsed, but do not consider either as good as the 
above method.' 

'Tn the brighter days of March and later, I 
have found no other attention necessary than 



TOMATO. 29 

keeping the house dry at mid day. But there 
appears to be further reason why hand pollina- 
tion is profitable. In my earliest experiences in 
tomato forcing, I was impressed with the fact 
that indoor tomatoes are smaller than those 
grown out of doors, and the midwinter fruits are 
usually smaller than those produced under the 
same circumstances in late spring. There is 
also a marked tendenc}^ for house tomatoes to be 
one-sided. It was a long time before any reason 
for these facts suggested itself. I finally came 
to feel that this irregularity and perhaps the 
smallness, were due to irregular or insufficient 
pollination, although it is probably true that lack 
of sunlight has something to do with the in- 
ferior size. The first definite aid toward the 
solution of the problem was the result of an ex- 
periment performed early in the winter b}^ my 
former assistant, W. M. Munson. Mr. Muuson 
pollinated two fruits on the same cluster, with 
pollen from one source, but in one flower very 
little pollen was used and it was applied to one 
side of the stigma only, while the other flower 
received an abundance of pollen over the whole 
surface of the stigma. 

''The flowers that received an abundance of 
pollen, produced large and fully developed fruit, 
while those that received only a small amount, 
produced small inferior fruit. Moreover, the 



30 VEGETABIvE FORCING. 

large fruit was practically symmetrical, while the 
small one was one-sided. 

''The larger fruit had all the seeds developed, 
while the smaller one had seeds upon one side 
only, and the other, or unfertilized side, was 
seedless and nearly solid. This experiment has 
been repeated several times with substantially 
the same results. The flowers, of course, w^ere 
emasculated in the bud, and were securely cov- 
ered with bags to prevent any interference. 
Four important lessons are to be drawn from 
these experiments : 

'4. One-sidedness appears to be due to a 
greater development of seeds on the large side. 

"2. This development of seeds is apparently 
due to the application of the greater part of the 
pollen to that side. 

''3. An abundance of pollen applied over the 
entire stigmatic surface, by increasing the num- 
ber of seeds, increases the size of the fruit. 
• ''4. The pollen, either directly or indirectly, 
probably stimulates the growth of the fruit be- 
yond the mere influence of the number of seeds ; 
the growth of the solid part appears to indicate 
this. 

''The secondary influence of the pollen in in- 
creasing the size of fruits, both by increasing 
the number of seeds — which necessarily demand 
a larger envelope or recepticle — and by some 



TOMATO. 31 

stimulating influence which it may have upon 
the pericarp itself, is well known as a scientific 
fact, but I do not know that it has ever been ap- 
plied to the practical operations of Horticulture. 
"If I have interpreted these experiments cor- 
rectly, they mean that a part, at least, of the 
smallness and perhaps all of the one-sidedness 
of house tomatoes, are due to insufficent pollina- 
tion, and that it will pay the grower in mid- 
winter to pollinate b}^ hand, and to exercise pains 
to apply an abundance of pollen over the whole 
surface of the stigma." 

SOIL AND FERTILIZERS. 

It is a common belief, that the tomato, unlike 
most plants, is not benefited by rich soil or 
heavy fertilizing. It is claimed that the vines 
make a very luxurient growth, but produce very 
little fruit. This, however, has been proven er- 
roneous. The fault, I think, lies in the applica- 
tion of too slow acting fertilizers. 

The plant will outlive any northern season, 
and its life, therefore, is determined by contin- 
gencies of frost, rather than by any inherent 
limit of duration. 

The plant ;/^e'^r matures in the northern states^ 
and it would probably continue to bear for some 
months, if not destroyed. Plants have been 
known to live through two winters in good bear- 



32 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

ing condition. It is apparent, therefore, that 
any fertilizer which is not at once available to 
the plant, but which gives up its materials com- 
paratively late in the season, will maintain a 
vigorous growth, and probably delay fruitfulness. 
Coarse stable manures are among this class. It 
is some time before they become thoroughly de- 
composed and incorporated with the soil, and if 
applied heavily, it is probable that they will give 
unsatisfactory results. If the season were long 
enough to allow the plant to live out its natural 
life, it is conceivable that the materials would be 
gradually used and that the total productiveness 
of the plant would be as great, if, in fact, not 
greater, than it would have been, under a treat- 
ment which caused it to bear heavily at an earlier 
period. 

In greenhouse cultivation, the great desiderata 
is to have a full crop produced in a very short 
time. Therefore, a rich soil containing a large 
amount of plant food, and quick acting fertili- 
zers, should be used. Of course, heavil}^ man- 
ured plants undoubtedly require more care in 
the pruning, and it is possible, that when not 
properly handled, they may be more liable to 
mildew because of the dense and crowded growth; 
but on the other hand, we always get the best 
yield from the strongest plants, and we find" the 
extra cost of training to be of very little account. 



TOMATO. 33- 

We select the richest loam we can get, to 
which is added a fourth of its bulk of well rotted 
stable manure, and when the plants begin to 
bear, extra stimulants are added, such as liquid 
manure, dissolved nitrate of soda, etc. Quite 
often a top dressing of manure is given. It 
must be remembered that in house culture, the 
roots are confined in a small space and they 
have but little chance to search for food. Hence 
this heavy manuring is essential to give satis- 
factory results. 



CHAPTER in. 

TOMATOES AS A SPRiNG AND EARLY 
SUMMER CROP. 

*^T^HE prices that can be obtained for this 
j^ crop are quite remunerative. Houses 
that have been used during the winter, for forc- 
ing lettuce, radishes etc., can be used to a very 
good advantage in growing a tomato crop after 
the season for winter crops is over, and the space 
is not needed for anything else. Working with 
this object in view, we use the houses for other 
crops while the winter season lasts, and keep 
the tomato plants in as small a place as possible, 
which space is not large enough to be seriously 
missed. As a general rule, houses that have 
been used for forcing lettuce during the winter 
and early spring months, are vacant after the 
middle of May, and produce nothing after the 
last crops of radishes and lettuce are taken off. 
Houses can in this way, with almost no cost for 
fuel and no extra expense for filling benches 
with soil, be made to produce quite an increase 
in income, the main work being the growing and 
and training of the plants. 

The demand for these house-grown tomatoes 
is very good. In the midst of the strawberry 

34 



TOMATOES AS A SPRING CROP. 35 

and raspberry season, tomatoes sell at fifteen to 
twenty cents per qnart, jnst about double the 
prices received lor berries. In all markets of 
au}^ account, tomatoes are shipped in from the 
South, but do not hurt the sale of those from the 
greenhouse, being inferior in quality and selling 
at lower prices. 

"In order to get plants ready to set in the beds 
about the middle of March, or as soon as the 
last crop of lettuce is cut, the seed should be 
sown about the middle of December. If the 
seed is sown much earlier than this, the plants 
will become too large, and are liable to injury 
from crowding. No special care is needed in 
germinating the seed, but the young plants must 
have good care. 

Tomato plants are like corn in that they need 
all the warmth and sunlight they can get, and 
at all times they should be kept in the warmer 
part of the house, and never allowed to get chilled. 

The soil should not be allowed to get dry, but 
excessive watering should be avoided. 

After the plants get their second or third 
leaves they should be transplanted, and at least 
once more before they are large enough to be 
put where they stand while fruiting. When 
transplanted the first time, the plants are set 
two by two inches apart, and four by four inches 
the second transplanting. The plants may be 



36 VEGP^TABIvE FORCING. 



set ill beds or pots, but for various reasons flats 
are preferred. When the plants are set where 
they are to stand for fruiting, they are planted 
directly in the soil eighteen or twent}^ inches 
apart each way. We have used large pots or 
boxes, but without any apparent advantage, al- 
though this custom is recommended for winter 
forcing. 

The last transplanting should be done some 
time in March, for after the middle of this month 
the benches can not be used for lettuce profitably, 
as the houses are liable to get too warm, and the 
plentiful supply of hot bed and cold frame lettuce, 
brings the price down ; but when the tomato 
plants are set out, if good lettuce plants are set 
between them, a fair crop of lettuce may be 
grown before the tomato plants reach any con- 
siderable size. But after the lettuce is off, the 
tomatoes should have the entire ground, and 
should be given a good mulch of fine manure, 
which will assist in holding the water that is 
applied to the bed. After the lettuce is off, or 
before, the tomato plants should be trained to one 
or two stalks. 

VARIETIES. 

Nearl}^ all of the varieties that are valuable 
for out-door culture are suitable for forcing. 

Of the purple kinds, the Acme and the Beauty 
are perhaps the best. x\inong the red kinds, the 



TOMATOES AS A SPRING CROP. 37 

Perfection aud Paragon are good. The Lorillard 
is not so very desirable for forcing, although it 
has been highly recommended by some. The 
rough, irregular varieties are not at all desirable. 

The Dwarf Champion has some good qualities 
in its favor. On account of its short compact 
growth, the plants can be set closer together 
than any other kind. They can be set in beds 
that are close to the glass, hence are very suit- 
able for the side benches in low houses. 

The first fruit that are set, are of fair size, 
while on some other varieties they are small, but 
do not produce very large crops. It has a very 
dense foliage, and the leaves hide the sprouts, 
making pruning quite difficult. 

Quite a number of other varieties have been 
forced, but they do not have any special qualities 
that render them desirable. 

At the present time (1896) I know of no better 
varieties than the Acme, Beauty, Perfection, 
Paragon and Dwarf Champion. 



CHAPTER IV. 
SOME TROUBLES OF WINTER TOMATOES.^ 

NEARLY all forced plants are subject to 
many diseases and annoyances, arising 
from the fact that the enemies, as well as the 
hosts, are protected by the congenial and equable 
conditions of the glass house. As the cultiva- 
tion of a given plant becomes more common and 
widespread, new enemies are likel}^ to find it. 
The tomato is rapidly becoming an important 
winter crop, and its enemies are therefore coming 
into prominence. Two of these troubles — the 
winter blight and root-gall — are so obscure in 
their methods that growers often fail to recognize 
them until the crop is ruined ; and as they al- 
ready appear to be widespread in the north, it 
has been thought best to call attention to them. 

WINTER BLIGHT. 

The most serious disease of forced tomatoes 
which I have yet encountered is what, for lack 
of a better name, I propose to call the winter 
blight. This disease, so far as I know, has not 
been described except in a short communication 
from this Station in Garden mid Forest. It has 

='Bul. 43, Cornell University, Experiment Station. 

38 



SOME TROUBI.es of winter tomatoes. 39 

not yet been carefully studied in the laboratory, 
but various attempts have been made to check 
it; and as it is likely to prove a serious disease, 
the attention of both growers and experimenters 
should be called to it. The object of the present 
report is to record the disease and to draw atten- 
tion to it, rather than to present any full analysis 
of it. The disease first appeared in our houses 
in the winter of 1890-91, when about a dozen 
plants wv-re somewhat affected. At this time 
the trouble was not regarded as specific; the 
plants were old and had borne one crop, and it 
was thought that they were simply worn out. 
In some of our experiments it became necessary 
to carry about a dozen plants over the summer, 
and these were introduced into the house when 
the forcing season opened last October. From 
this stock, the trouble again spread and in six 
or eight weeks it had become serious and there 
was no longer any doubt that we were contend- 
ing with a specific disease. 

This blight attacks the leaves. The first in- 
dication of the trouble is a dwarfing and slight 
fading of the leaves, and the appearance of more 
or less ill-defined yellowish spots or splashes. 
These spots soon become dark or almost black, 
and the leaf curls and becomes stiff, the edges 
drawing downward and giving the plant a wilted 
appearance. The spots grow larger, until they 



40 ve:getable forcing. 

often become an eighth of an inch across, or even 
more, and they are finally more or less translu- 
cent. This injury to the foliage causes the 
plant to dwindle, and the stems become small 
and hard. Fruit production is lessened, or if 
the disease appears before flowers are formed, no 
fruit whatever may set. In two or three in- 
stances, in which 3-oung plants were attacked^ 
the disease killed the plant outright, but a 
diseased plant ordinarily lives throughout the 
winter, a constant disappointment to its owner, 
but always inspiring the vain hope that greater 
age or better care may overcome the difficulty. 
It is probable that the disease is bacterial in 
origin and it was at first thought that it is 
identical with the bacterial potato blight and that 
our plants had originally contracted the disease 
from soil taken from an infested potato field ; 
and this view was supported by the testimou}^ of 
others who had been troubled with it and who 
had taken soil from potato plantation.'-' Speci- 
mens were submitted, however, to Dr. T. J. 
Burrill, of the University of Illinois, who re- 
plies that the trouble is probably not the same 
as the potato disease. A diseased tomato cion 
was grafted into a potato plant, and the stock for 
some inches below the union became diseased and 



• =^'In Horticulturists' Rule-Book, 2d ed. (p. 59), which was going- through 
the press at this time, the statement is made that "the bacterial potato- 
bliffht or rot also attacks tomatoes.'" I do not know if this statement is true. 



SOME TROUBI.es OF WINTER TOMATOES. 41 

finally died ; and this potato stock abounded in 
germs to all appearance like those infesting the 
cion, but inoculations from pure cultures were 
not made and it is not safe to say that the 
tomato disease can be transferred to the potato. 
Potatoes were planted in boxes containing 
diseased tomatoes and they did not contract the 
disease; and a crop of potatoes was also grown 
on one of the benches in the tomato house, 
separated from the diseased tomatoes only by a 
three-foot walk, and it remained healthy. 
Tomato plants at this distance from affected 
plants invariably took the disease. It was then 
thought that the disease might be identical with 
the southern tomato blight described by Dr. P>. 
D. Halsted in Bulletin 19 of the Mississippi 
Experiment Station. Specimens were sent him, 
when it was found that the two are distinct both 
in external appearance and in the character of 
the organism, the germ of the southern blight 
being a bacterium while this is a micrococc\is. 
All that is known further concerning the 
probable cause of the disease will appear in the 
following report from Professor W. R. Dudley, 
who has made some preliminary examinations 
of the diseased plants : 

''I find a species of micrococcus present in 
limited numbers in the cells of the tomato leaves, 
both in those which were blanched, indicating 



42 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

the earlier stages of this disease, and in those 
blackened by its later development, and also in 
the diseased fruits. Moreover, the external 
aspect of this disease — the blackening or blight- 
ing of portions of the plants — is such as charac- 
terizes diseases occasioned by bacteria in other 
plants. Nevertheless, the preliminary cultures 
made did not give any results supporting this 
theory. Sterilized nutrient agar-agar'^' was in- 
fected with sap from the diseased tomato leaves 
and fruits with no result whatever ; while similar 
infection from the stem of, a potato infested with 
apparently a bacterial disease,*!* gave a cloudy- 
white growth along the track of the infecting 
wire and on the surface of the agar-agar which 
microscopical examination showed to be due to 
a minute micrococcus. Experiments necessary 
to the determination of this as a specific organ- 
ism producing this particular tomato disease 
have not been made. Nor were other nutrient 
solutions used, which might have been more 
acceptable food for the micrococcus in a pure 
culture. 

"I cannot feel sure that this disease was 
caused primarily by bacteria, which were cer- 
tainly not present in great abundance. From 
microscopic examination of a considerable num- 

■^Ag-ar-agar is a g-elaiinous vegetable substance used for making- cultures 
of bacteria. 

+This potato stem had been grafted with a diseased tomato cion. 



.SOME TROUBIvES OF WINTER TOMATOES. 43 

ber of leaves from various sources, and observa- 
tions in relation to this disease, on winter-grown 
tomatoes elsewhere, I think that no injurious 
effects of bacteria will appear, if houses are 
kept clean, properly heated and ventilated so 
that the vitality of the plants will not be im- 
paired, and also if the houses renovated at 
intervals." 

Various treatments have been tried upon this 
disease. Our first attempt was thorough spray- 
ing with ammoniacal carbonate of copper, and 
this is the one which first suggests itself to 
growers. Our efforts, although carefully made 
at intervals, were wholly unsuccessful. It was 
then thought that treatment of the soil in which 
new plants were set might prove effective, and 
as our crop was grown in boxes, the experiment 
was easily tried. 

Boxes in which diseased plants had grown 
were emptied and the insides were thoroughly 
washed with various substances, as follows : 
three with dilute solution of ammoniacal car- 
bonate of copper ; two with lime whitewash ; 
one with Bordeaux mixture ; two with lye. 
Fresh soil was placed in these boxes and healthy 
young plants were set in them. The boxes 
were then placed in the tomato house, near both 
healthy and diseased plants. For three or four 
weeks the plants appeared to be healthy, but 



44 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

after that time the disease attacked them all 
without respect to treatment. The same result 
followed thorough watering of the soil with am- 
moniacal carbonate of copper, nitrate of soda, 
and lye. One box was treated once with ammonia- 
cal carbonate of copper applied to the soil. The 
plants were somewhat diseased when the treat- 
ment was given. The disease progressed with- 
out check. One plant died, and a healthy plant 
was set in its place. This plant was remark- 
ably strong and vigorous for a period of 
three weeks, when it contracted the disease. 
In the meantime another plant died from the 
disease. Late in the winter the remaining plants 
were removed from the box, the soil was again 
treated with ammoniacal carbonate of copper and 
fresh seedlings were set in it ; but these plants 
also contracted the disease. Just before this last 
treatment was given a lo-inch pot was filled from 
the soil in the box, and a seedling from the same 
lot as those placed in the box was planted in it. 
The pot was set in the tomato house. This 
plant showed the disease in less than three 
weeks. The question at once arises if the disease 
was not communicated through the air from in- 
fected plants, rather than through the soil. 
This I cannot answer, but it is certain that the 
disease travels from plant to plant which stand 
in separate boxes, and whose tops do not touch. 



SOME TROUBI^ES OF WINTER TOMATOES. 45 

Through what distances this transfer can take 
place I do not know. We observed it to have 
occurred through a distance of two or three feet, 
but a plant which stood fifteen feet from diseased 
plants, but separated from them by a glass parti- 
tion in which two doors stood open, did not take 
the blight. It is still possible that we may find 
a successful treatment for diseased soil, if all 
affected plants can first be removed from the 
house. 

All our experiments, therefore, simply lead us 
to the conclusion that the best treatment for this 
winter blight is to remove all diseased plants at 
once, and if it becomes serious to remove all the 
plants and soil in the house and start anew. They 
emphasize the importance of starting with new 
plants and fresh soil every fall. And all our ex- 
perience has shown that the disease is fatal to 
success in tomato forcing, for we lost our crop in 
an endeavor to treat it. 

COMMON BLIGHT. 

{Cladosportimi fiilvitm.) — The blight which is^ 
oftenest associated with the forcing of tomatoes 
appears as cinnamon-brown spots on the under 
surfaces of the leaves. Fortunately, this fungus 
is rarely serious. For ourselves, we have had 
no experience with it, but I see it occasionally 
in tomato houses. It is apt to appear in late 



46 • V^EGETABLE FORCING. 

winter or early spring, often not until the winter 
crop is nearly harvested. In such cases, the 
burning of the old plants as soon as the last 
fruit is off will be the best treatment. If it 
appears earlier, however, spraying with ammo- 
niacal carbonate of copper is to be recommended, 

ROOT=QALL. 

Nematode injuries of roots have received 
much study of late and the attention of growers 
has been called to them in bulletins and in the 
press. But there are still very few horticultur- 
ists who are aware of the extent to which they 
infest our greenhouses. Many common plants, 
as geraniums, begonias and coleus, are subject 
to their attacks, and the diseased plant — or the 
soil in which it grew — is often dumped into the 
dirt-bin, where it propagates the trouble. In 
the southern states the nematodes are serious 
enemies to many plants in the field, even to 
trees, but in the north they confine their atten- 
tion mostly to in-door plants. This indicates 
that severe frost is fatal to them, and suggests a 
remedy in the freezing of houses which are seri- 
ously attacked, when this can be done to ad- 
vantage, as between the crops of winter tomatoes. 
Nematodes are very minute animals belonging 
to the true worms, and allied to the trichinae. 
These nematodes are a serious menace to tomato 



SOME TROUBLES OF WINTER TOMATOES. 47 

growing under glass. They attack the roots^ 
causing the formation of galls. Sometimes the 
whole root is swollen into one ragged shapeless 
mass, strongly reminding one of the club-root of 
cabbage. The trouble is likely to be worst in 
those plants which are carried over from the 
preceding winter. In general appearance, plants 
injured by root-galls are very like those attacked 
by the winter blight already described, save that 
the leaves do not show a spotted discoloration. 
The plants become weak, stop growing, the 
leaves curl and become 3'ellow and dr}^ much as 
if the plant were suffering for water. 

The treatment for this disease is to remove 
the plants and soil, thoroughh- wash the benches 
or boxes with lye, and begin anew. But it 
would be a great saving of time and expense if 
the soil could be treated, between the crops, with 
some material which would destroy the nema- 
todes. This was tried in a small way. Five 
boxes, each containing four diseased plants, were 
selected for treatment December nth, 1891. 
The plants were removed, and the soil was 
treated as follows : 

1. One-third pound of concentrated com- 
mercial lye dissolved in a pail of water. 

2. Two pounds of salt in a pail of water. 

3. One pound of quick-lime in a pail of water. 

4. Four tablespoonfuls of bisulphide of car- 
bon poured into holes which were quickly closed. 



48 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

5. The box removed out-of-doors and allowed 
to freeze solid. 

These boxes are 18 inches square and con- 
tain 10 inches of soil. Clean young plants 
were set in them after the lapse of four or five 
days, and the boxes were set side by side in the 
tomato house. One or two of the plants died in 
the soil treated with lye, and the places were re- 
filled, while three settings had to be made in 
No. 2, because of the great amount of salt in 
the soil. Between each setting the salt was 
washed out by heavy watering. When the 
plants were removed six months afterwards, it 
was found that all contained galls except those 
in boxes 2 and 5 — those salted and frozen — but 
upon these no galls whatever could be found. 
The results were definite and satisfactory, but 
the experiment was too limited to warrant any 
general conclusions. They inspire the hope 
that soils can be treated between the crops for 
nematodes. L. H. BailEY. 



CHAPTER V. 
CUCUMBER. 

THE cucumber is an annual plant, a native 
of the East Indies, and was first introduc- 
ed into England in 1573. In the East, the cucum- 
ber has been extensively cultivated, from the earl- 
iest periods. When the Israelites complained to 
Moses in the wilderness, comparing their old 
Egyptian luxuries with the manna upon which 
they were fed, they exclaimed ; ' We remember 
the fish which we did eat freely, the cucumbers 
and. the melons.' Isaiah, in speaking of the 
desolation of Judea, says : ' The daughter of 
Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as a lodge 
in a garden of cucumbers.' 

" In Syria and in India, immense quantities are 
eaten by the common people. The probabilities 
are, however, that their cucumbers are melons, 
though mention is made of the cultivation of 
both, and late travelers mention large planta- 
tions over which constant watch is kept, and 
fires built at night to keep off the wild dogs and 
wolves." '•' 

The many varieties under cultivation at the 
Pi'gsent time are great improvements on the 

*Henderson\s Hand Book of Plants. 

49 



50 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

original species, but where and when the im- 
provement commenced, we have no record; and 
it is about as difficult to say when it will stop. 

Cucumbers may be forced during the entire 
winter and spring months. They are also used 
to succeed the last crops of lettuce and radishes 
in late spring. If they are to be forced during 
the fall months, the seed should be sown in the 
green house about October first, in small pots, 
three or four seeds in each pot, thinning out to 
one strong plant. Then in thirty days, or in 
less time, they will have become sufficiently 
strong to plant out at twenty to twenty-four 
inches apart on the south side of the bench. 

Some growers go to an old pasture field and 
cut sod, in pieces two to four inches square. 
These pieces of sod are inverted on the green- 
house bench, and the seed planted among the 
fibrous roots of the grass. 

When the plants are large enough to trans- 
plant, they are taken up and set in the perma- 
nent bed. The sod has not yet become decom- 
posed, and a ball of soil wnll adhere to the roots 
of the plant. This is quite a good method, but 
not so practicable as when the pots are used. We 
use three inch pots, filling them only a third full 
of soil. 

When the plant has formed a pair of true 
leaves, and stands well above the brim, the pot 



CUCUMBER. 51 

is filled with soil. This affords additional root 
space and has the same effect as transplanting. 

When the pots are filled with roots, the plants 
are transferred directly to the beds. Now comes 
the most difficult time in the forcing of cucum- 
bers. The young plants are very liable to the 
attacks of insects and fungi, and any failure in 
the heat will seriously effect them. There are 
very few vegetables which require such careful 
attention until they become established. The 
aphis must be kept off, or the plant will be ruined, 
even in a few days. A stunted cucumber plant 
will make a short, bunchy growth at the top, and 
the leaves will be small and yellowish ; it may 
remain almost stationary for some weeks. Even 
if it finally resumes vigorous growth, it rarely 
becomes a profitable plant. Some plants become 
stunted without apparent cause. 

To insure a good stand, it is best to plant three 
or four times as many plants as are needed, the 
weaker ones are destroyed, and only the stronger 
ones are left to bear. 

A good plant will grow vigorously from the 
start and sometimes the lower leaves will fall off, 
giving it a scraggily and diseased appearance ; 
but so long as the growing parts are vigorous, 
and the leaves are not attacked with mildew, 
the plant is in good condition. 



52 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

The plants should now be trained. Some 
growers simply place brush on the bed for the 
vines to run on, but I think this is a poor practice. 

The best trellis I know of is made of No. i8 
annealed wire. When there is sufficient room 
above the benches, the plants are trained upon 
a perpendicular trellis, but on low benches, they 
are trained along the roof. The wires are at- 
tached lengthwise the house in parallel strands 
from one foot to one foot and a half apart, and 
cross wires are run down from the rafters every 
four or five feet to prevent the strands from sag- 
ging. The vines are tied upon the wires with 
rafi&a or other soft cord. Two or three strong 
main branches are trained out and only enough 
side shoots are allowed to grow to cover the trellis^ 
the remaining ones being pinched off as soon as 
they appear. It is essential that the plants do 
not become "choked" or over-crowded with young 
growth, and some of the larger leaves may be 
taken off in the dark days of midwinter, if the 
foliage becomes very dense. The branches are 
all headed in as soon as they reach the top of 
the trellis or begin, to enroach upon the space, 
allowed for neighboring plants. If the plants 
grow very rapidly, and the trellis is large, some 
preliminary heading back may be useful, but we 
have not practiced the ver}^ close pinching in 
system recommended by English growers. 



CUCUMBER. 53 

Growers who find no difficulty in forcing the 
common cucumbers in winter, often fail with the 
English sorts. As a rule, these failures come 
mostly from two errors ; insufficient bottom heat, 
and impatience for quick results. The grower 
must understand that earliness is not a character- 
istic of the English cucumbers. 

From the sowing of seed to marketable fruits, 
in mid-winter is on an average fronr 80 to 100 
days. From a month to six weeks is required 
for the first fruit to attain saleable size after the 
flower has set. A writer in ^^Neviie Horticole^' 
in 1874, records the growing of Telegraph in 
sixty-five days from the seed, which was the 
quickest time on record in his vicinity. This 
was done from February to April, however, when 
the days are lengthening. The plants continue 
in bearing for three or four months under good 
treatment, and a plant ought to yield at least 
eight good fruits. If the plants are pinched in 
after the English custom and allowed to bear 
but two or three fruits at a time, the fruiting 
season can be extended and probably more 
profitable, especially in small houses, to secure 
the returns more quickly, in order to obtain a 
larger supply at any given time. Care must be 
taken not to allow the heavy fruits to pull the 
vines off the support, and those which do not 
hang free should be held up in slings, for if 



54 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

allowed to lie on the soil they do not color even- 
ly. This swinging also appears to exert some 
influence upon the shape of the fruit, as will be 
discussed further on. 

POLLINATION. 

Cucumbers are monoecious plants ; that is, 
the sexes are found in separate flowers on the 
same plant. The young cucumber or ovary, 
can be seen below the petals or leaves of the 
flower. 

The staminate flowers are more numerous than 
the pistilate, and they begin to appear earlier ; a 
sufficient supply of pollen is therefore insured 
against all the exigencies of weather or other 
untoward circumstances. Out of doors the 
pollen is carried from the staminate to the pis- 
tilate flowers by insects, but pollen bearing in- 
sects are absent from the greenhouse. If the 
flowers are fertilized in the house, therefore, the 
pollen must be carried by hand. There is a 
question, however, if pollination is advised in 
the house, for it is certain that the English 
cucumber will grow to perfection without seed 
and entirely without the aid of pollen. In the 
early days of cucumber forcing hand pollination 
was practiced, but it has been abandoned by 
many growers. Fertilization was formerly con- 
sidered necessary for the setting of cucumbers. 



CUCUMBER. 55 

but it has long been proved to be needless. In- 
deed, fruits intended for eating are better with- 
out, as the seeds in them are not so numerous. 
For seeding purposes fertilization is decidedly 
required, if good seed be needed. 

Except for seeding purposes it is not necessar}^ 
that the female flowers should be fertilized, the 
fruit reaching the same size and being all the 
better for the absence of seeds. In mid-winter 
time, or in the care of weak plants, the whole of 
the male flowers might with advantage be kept 
removed. 

It is possible that the forcing cucumber sets 
more freely now without pollen than it did be- 
fore its characters were well fixed, or perhaps the 
early gardeners performed an unnecessary labor. 
Many gardeners suppose that pollen causes the 
fruit to grow large at one end, and therefore try 
to produce seedless cucumbers for the double 
purpose of saving labor and of procuring 
straighter and more shapely fruits. We find, 
however, that it pays to pollinate by hand if 
early fruits are desired. The early flowers 
nearly all fail to set if pollen is withheld, but 
late flowers upon the same plant may set freely 
with no pollen. The best w^ay to pollinate is to 
pick off a staminate flower, strip back the corolla 
and insert the column of anthers into a pistillate 
flower. 



56 V^EGETABIvE FORCING. 

Fruits which have set without pollination are 
uniformly seedless throughout, the walls of the 
ovules remaining loose and empty. Pollination 
does not occur when the fruits are left to them- 
selves in the forcing-house, especially in mid- 
winter, when pollen-carrying insects are not 
present. 

The production of mis-shapen fruits is one of 
the difficulties of forcing the English varieties. 
The commonest deformity is an enlargement of 
the lower end. English growers often grow the 
fruit in glass tubes to make them straight. The 
cause of the deformities, particularly of the 
swollen end is obscure. The forcing cucumber 
produces seeds only near the blossom end, the 
ovules in the remaining half or two-thirds are 
never filled out, no matter how much pollen is 
applied to the stigma. It would seem, therefore, 
that if all these ovules in the blossom end were 
to develop into good seeds the fruit must be 
larger at this point; and it would also seem as 
if accidental application of pollen to one side of 
.the stigma must make the fruit one-sided by 
developing one cell at the expense of another, 
for this actually occurs in tomatoes and apples. 
But it has been found that seed bearing is 
not necessarily associated with a swollen end of 
the fruit, and pollination of one side of the flower 
does not appear to destroy the symmetry of the 



CUCUMBEJR. ' 57 

fruit. It has been found-by experimenting with 
different amounts of pollen, that there is very 
little difference in external results whether little 
or much pollen is applied. This is directly con- 
trary to the effect of pollen on the tomato. 
Little pollen may produce fewer seeds than 
much pollen, but the shape of the fruit is neces- 
sarily influenced ; and yet there are instances in 
which pollination appears to make the fruit un- 
shapely, but why it should exert this influence 
sometimes and not at others is as yet to be 
solved. It appears, however, to be a peculiarity 
of individual plants. It is probable that much 
of the irregularity in shape is but an expression 
of plant variation rather than a result of par- 
ticular treatment. 

VARIETIES. 

The varieties of the common sorts most 
generally grown are the White Spine, Nicholas 
Medium Green and Hill's Forcing, 

Of the English varieties, the Sion House is 
grown most largely for general purposes. It is 
of medium length, averaging a foot or fourteen 
inches when fully grown, smooth and regular. 
It will sell better than the larger sorts in markets 
which are unaccustomed to the large English 
varieties. 

Telegraph is also a favorite variety, it is a 
smooth, slender and very handsome fruit, ordi- 



58 V^EGETABIyE FORCING. 

narily attaining a length of eighteen to twenty 
inches. English authorities say this variety is 
very liable to mixture. 

Kenyon is also an excellent, smooth, slender 
sort of medium length. Edinburg is a spin}^ 
and somewhat furrowed variety, attaining a 
length of twenty to twenty-four inches. It is 
not a very attractive variety and many others 
are to be preferred. Lome is one of the best of 
the very large sorts. It sometimes grows as 
long as thirty-three inches. The very large 
varieties are less popular than those of medium 
length. They are too large for convenient table 
use and the}- are apt to be inferior in quality to 
those a foot in length. 

The flavor of English cucumbers is somewhat 
different from that of the common field sorts, the 
texture being, as a rule, somewhat less breaking. 
But this is not an evidence of poor quality ; it is 
simply a different quality and evidenth^ belongs 
to these fruits as a class. The English sorts 
retain their green color longer than the field 
varieties. They are ordinarly picked before 
they attain their complete growth, although 
they remain eatable for sometime after they have 
reached maturity. 

The reader will now be able to understand 
what the English mean by " prize cucumbers.'^ 
Specimen fruits are exhibited at the shows, and 



CUCUMBER. 59 

there are certain customary scales of points for 
determining the merits of individual fruits, such 
as the age, the ratio of thickness to length, the 
shape of the shoulder or stem end, the color of 
the tips and the like. 

To the student of plant variation, the forcing 
cucumbers possess unusual interest. As a 
class, these cucumbers are very distinct from all 
others, and yet they are known to have come in 
recent times from the shorter and spiny field 
sorts, at least those particular varieties which 
are now grown. It is not improbable that very 
long cucumbers were known some centuries ago. 
The cucitmis loiigiis of Bankin, 165 1, is figured, 
as pointed out by Sturtevant, "as if equaling our 
longest and best English forms." But these 
older types do not appear to have been the an- 
cestors of our modern forcing kinds. Our types 
appear to have originated within the present 
century. The English have always been obliged 
because of their climatic limitations to grow 
cucumbers largely by the aid of artificial heat. 
We have record, that in 1820, Patrick Flanagan, 
gardener to Sir Thomas Hare, sent two speci- 
mens of cucumbers, one green and the other 
ripe, to the London Horticultural Society. The 
green one measured seventeen inches in length, 
was nearly seven inches in circumference and 
weighed nearly twenty-six ounces. The ripe 



60 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

one was nearly twenty-five and one-half inches 
long, eleven inches in circumference and weighed 
six pounds. Mr. Flanagan states that he has 
frequently grown these cucumbers in high per- 
fection for the table, nearly two feet long. In 
1811 he produced one which measured thirty-one 
inches in length, was twelve inches in circum- 
ference and weighed eleven pounds. This is a 
remarkable variety of the cucumber, conbining 
with such extraordinary vigor of growth, so 
much excellence of flavor as to make it particu- 
larly deserving of notice. It keeps true to 
itself, without variation ; but it is difficult to 
make it yield seed. It requires to be grown in 
high temperature. 



CHAPTER VI. 
RADISH AND RHUBARB. 

RADISH. 

E^ L. HENDERSON in his Hand Book of 
y ^ Plants and general Horticulture, says : 
^'The common garden radish is a hardy annual, 
entirely unknown in its native state. It is 
usually credited to China. It has long been held 
in high esteem, and before the christian era a 
volume was written on this plant alone. The 
ancient Greeks in offering their obligations to 
Apollo, presented turnips in lead, beets in silver 
and radishes in vessels of beaten gold. 

''Pliny observes that radishes grow best in 
saline soils, or when they are watered with salt- 
water; and hence, he says, the radishes of Egypt 
are better than any in the world, on account of 
their being supplied with nitre ; modern experi- 
ence, however, does not allow us to endorse this. 
He gives some account of the kinds grown at 
Rome in his day, one of which he describes as 
being so clear and transparent that one might 
see through the roots. The radish was intro- 
duced into England during the sixteenth century. 
Four kinds were cultivated by Gerarde in the 
latter part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; 

61 



62 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

since that time many new varieties have been 
introduced and disseminated by European seed- 
men and gardeners. The seed is extensively 
grown in France and Germany, and to those 
countries we are indebted more for our supply 
than to any other." 

Radishes are one of the chief market garden 
crops grown under glass. It is estimated that 
upward of twenty-five acres are grown in green- 
houses, hot beds and cold frames near the 
vicinity of New York. 

They are so easily grown that there is no need 
of giving lengthy directions. The first seed 
should be sown about the first week in October. 
When a constant supply is desired successive 
sowings are made every two or three weeks. 
From four to six crops are taken from the same 
ground b}^ the middle of May. The seed is 
sown thinly in rows three or four inches apart^ 
and the radishes thinned out when an inch high 
to two inches betw^een the plants. Radishes 
delight in a rich, rather light sandy soil, well 
enriched with short stable manure. 

When the long varieties are grown, quite a 
saving of time and space can be had by sowing 
the seed thickly in flats, and when they are of 
suf&cient size to transplant them into the per- 
manent bed. The oval shaped varieties, how- 
ever, will not do so well to transplant. 



RADISH AND RHUBARB. 6J 

The temperature of a radish house ma}^ range 
from 45°-55° at night and from 60^-75° in the 
day time. 

When large enough for market they are 
pulled, washed and tied four or five in a bunch,^ 
according to the demand of the market, and sold 
by the dozen bunches. They are usually packed 
in baskets with the tops down and roots up, 
giving them a very attractive appearance. ' 

VARIETIES. 

Early Scarlet Globe. — One of the earliest and 
best for forcing ; its color is very handsome, 
flavor mild, crisp and juicy ; stands a great 
amount of heat without becoming pith3\ 

Early Roiiiid Dark Red. — The shape is the 
same as that of the Early Scarlet Turnip and it 
differs onl}^ in color, and in making much smal- 
ler tops. This makes it very desirable for forc- 
ing both in cold frames and greenhouses. 

Red Forcing Turnip. — The tops of this variety 
are the smallest of any of the early radishes, 
which, with its extreme earliness make it especi- 
ally valuable for strictly forcing purposes. 

Fre7ich Breakfast.- — A variety of quick growth, 
very mild and tender, and one of the best for forc- 
ing. Of oval form ; color : scarlet tipped with 
white. 

Philadelphia White Box. — Its points of superi- 
ority are short top, rapid growth, perfect turnip 



64 VEGETABLE F(3RCING. 

shape, extra fine quality and showing but little 
disposition to become pithy, but remaining solid 
and juicy for sometime after fully grown; 
especially fitted for growing under glass, in 
frames or boxes, hence its name. Owing to its 
very few leaves it can be sown thickly. 

Pearl Forcing, — This variety was introduced 
by W. A. Livingston, of Columbus, Ohio, in 
the spring of 1891. A most distinguishing 
characteristic is its rich, waxy appearance. The 
shape is one long sought for and the most ad- 
vantageous for bunching, being what might be 
called half stump rooted. The color is pearl 
white with the waxy appearance above described, 
and the texture is very firm and solid. It is 
about one week later than Wood's Earh^ Frame, 
but after they are ready for marketing they re- 
main in eatable condition fully two weeks longer 
before they show any sign of going to seed, and 
do not become woody. They will not bear quite 
so close planting as Wood's Early Frame, but 
their long standing after being ready for market 
without running to seed, or becoming woody or 
unfit for table use, more than makes up for the 
wide planting. 

RHUBARB. 

Rhubarb has been cultivated from the earliest 
ages for its medical properties, but was not grown 
as a vegetable until about sixty or seventy 



RADISH AND RHUBARB. 65 

years ago. It was first cultivated in England in 
1778. Many varieties have been introduced, for 
which we are chiefly indebted to the English 
gardeners. Some of the varieties, under high 
cultivation, produce enormous leaf-stems ; the 
size, however, is largely at the expense of the 
quality. Several of the species are very hand- 
some, both in their foliage and inflorescence. 

Rhubarb is a plant found in every well ap- 
pointed garden. It is of the easiest culture, and 
will grow in sunshine or in partial shade. Of 
late years rhubarb has been forced quite profit- 
ably. It is not unfrequent that when planted 
under the benches will yield as much profit as 
the crop on the bench. If forcing is to be con- 
tinued a good supply of large healthy roots 
should always be on hand, as the roots after 
forcing are useless. 

In order to have a continuous supply, seed 
should be sown about the middle of March in a 
cold frame, in light, fibrous soil, such as leaf 
mould, so that the young plants will make fibrous 
roots freely, and thus be easily transplanted. 
One pound of seed will be enough to sow six 
3x6 sashes, and will give about one thousand 
plants. In four or five weeks after sowing, the 
plants will be fit for transplanting, which may 
be done into richl}^ prepared beds of six rows 
each, at a distance of one foot each way. By 



■66 VEGETABIvE FORCING. 

fall they will have made fine, well-ripened roots. 
All that is necessary in the forcing of rhubarb 
is to take the large roots from the field, which, 
if well grown, will be from fifteen to twenty 
inches in diameter, and pack them upright as 
closely as they can be wedged together (with 
light soil shaken in to fill the interstices between 
the roots) under the bench or stage of the green- 
house, or in a warm cellar, or in fact, in any 
place where there is a growing temperature : 
say an average of sixty degrees. But little 
water is needed and none until the rhubarb 
shows signs of healthy growth. There is no 
necessity for light ; in fact, the stems being 
blanched by being grown in the dark, are much 
more tender than when grown in the light and 
air of the open garden, and are therefore more 
valuable, besides being forced at a season when 
they are not to be had in the open ground in the 
northern states. 

Rhubarb is also forwarded in cold frames and 
hot-beds. When the former is used the roots are 
taken up in the fall and packed closely together, 
as is done in forcing houses ; they are then 
covered with leaves thick enough to keep out 
frost. By March first, the leaves are all removed, 
except two or three inches, when sashes are put 
on the ^frames. By this forwarding process 
rhubarb may be had from three to four weeks 
earlier than that grown out of doors. 



RADISH AND RHUBARB. 67 

I have recommended raising the plant from 
seed, as it is the cheapest and quickest way ; 
and experience has shown that the varieties 
raised from seeds of either the St. Martins, 
Victoria or Linnaeus come true enough to the 
originals for all practicable purposes. Those, 
however, who are particular to have these kinds 
exactly correct, can obtain them by division. 



CHAPTER VII. 
ASPARAGUS. 

ASPARAGUS is a native of Great Britain, 
Russia and Poland. In man}^ other 
parts of Europe it is found growing wild, but is 
probably an escape in many localities, and is 
perfectly naturalized, as it is sparingly on our 
own coasts. The asparagus is one of the oldest 
as well as one of the most delicious of our 
garden vegetables. 

It was cultivated in the time of Cato the 
Elder, 200 B. C. ; and Pliny mentions a sort that 
grew in his time near Ravenna, of which three 
stalks would weigh a pound. From these ac- 
• counts it would appear that there is nothing new 
under the sun in the way of asparagus." '•• 

In the forcing house it is treated very much 
as rhubarb. It will grow under the benches, as 
it does not require much light. The plants are 
grown in the open ground on the "surface plan;" 
that is, they are not transplanted deep in the 
ground as for permanent beds. 

Successive yearly sowings are made so as to 
have on hand a constant supply of roots. The . 
seed should be sown in the spring as soon as the 

*P. L. Henderson's Hand Book of Plants. 

68 



ASPARAGUS. 69 

soil will admit of working, which should be pre- 
pared by being thoroughly pulverized and en- 
riched with well-rotted stable manure. The 
seed is sown in rows a foot apart, and if kept 
carefully hoed and clear from weeds, the plants 
will be in fine condition for transplanting the 
succeeding spring. Strict attention to this 
will save a year in time ; for if the seed-bed has 
been neglected, it will require an extra year for 
them to attain sufficient size for forcing. In 
consequence of this very common neglect of 
proper cultivation of the seed-bed, it is an almost 
universal impression that plants must be four 
years old before the}^ are fit for forcing. This is 
undoubtedly an error, for almost all large grow- 
ers for market purposes, count on forcing the 
plants when three years from the seed. 

The transplanting may be done any time for 
six or eight weeks from the opening of spring. 
The plant, from its peculiar succulent roots is 
less susceptible from late planting than most 
other plants, although at the same time delay 
should not occur, unless unavoidable, as the 
sooner it is planted after the ground is in work- 
ing order, the better wnll be the result. When 
there is plenty of ground and the crop is to be 
extensively grown, perhaps the best mode of 
transplanting is in rows three feet apart, the 
plants nine inches apart in the rows. In plant- 



70 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

ing, a line is set and a cut made little slanting 
to the depth of six or eight inches, according to 
the size of plant. The plants are then laid 
against the side of the trench at the distance 
already named, care being taken to properly 
spread the roots. The crown or top of the plant 
should be covered about three inches. In a 
week or so after planting the beds should be 
touched over slightly with a sharp toothed rake, 
which will destroy the germinating weeds. The 
raking had better be continued at intervals of 
a week or two, until the plants start to grow, 
when the hoe or hand cultivator may be applied 
between the rows ; the weeds that come up close 
to the plant must of necessity be pulled out by 
hand. 

GROWING ASPARAGUS FROM SEED 

Without transplanting is a method now finding 
many advocates. It is much cheaper, but re- 
quires an extra year to produce roots of suffi- 
cient strength for forcing. The plan is very 
simple and can be done by any one having even 
a slight kuowledge of farm or garden work. 
Prepare the land by manuring, deep plowing and 
harrowing, making it as level and smooth as 
possible for the reception of the seed. Make 
furrows three feet apart and about two or three 
inches deep, in which sow the seed b}^ hand or 
seed drill, as is most convenient. After sowing 



ASPARAGUS. 71 

the seed and before covering, press down the 
seed firmly in the rows evenly with the feet, 
then draw the back of a rake lengthwise over 
the rows, after which roll the whole surface with 
a garden roller. 

In two or three weeks time, if the weather is 
favorable, the plants will be through the ground 
sufficiently to define the rows. At once begin to 
cultivate with hand or horse cultivator, and stir 
the ground so as to destroy the embryo seeds, 
breaking the soil in the rows between the plants 
with the fingers or hand weeder for the same 
purpose. This must be repeated at intervals of 
two or three weeks during the summer, as the 
success of this method is entirely dependent on 
keeping down the weeds, which, if allowed to' 
grow would soon smother the plants, which, for 
the first season of their growth are weaker than 
the weeds. In two or three months from sow^- 
ing, the asparagus will have attained ten or 
twelve inches in height. It must now be thinned 
out so that the plants stand nine inches in the 
rows. By fall they will be from two to three 
feet high, strong and vigorous, if the directions 
for culture have been faithfully followed. When 
the foliage dies, cut down the stems to the 
ground and cover the rows for four or six inches 
on each side with two or three inches of rough 
manure. As the spring returns, renew the same 



72 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

process of cultivation to keep down weeds the 
second year exactly as was done for the first, and 
so on till the fall of the second year when the}^ 
may be placed in the forcing house. 

To compensate for the loss of a year in time 
in thus growing asparagus from the seed, such 
crops as cabbage, lettuce, onions, beets or spinach^ 
all of which will be marketed before the aspara- 
gus will have grown enough to interfere with 
them, can be sown or planted between the rows 
of asparagus the first year of its growth with but 
little injury to it; and as the ground for the 
asparagus has been heavih^ manured and well 
prepared, such crops will, in a measure, make 
up for the year's loss in time. 

In some localities, the asparagus beetle has 
done great injur\\ causing whole plantations to 
be plowed under. When the beetle first appears 
it ma}^ be controlled by picking it off and des- 
troying it ; but if allowed to become established 
the task is hopeless. Whenever the eggs ap- 
pear, cut and burn the plants as long as an^/ 
traces of the insect are to be seen ; this must be 
done if it destroys every vestige of vegetation. 
A remed}^ much in use m some sections is to 
coop up hens in the vicinit}^ of asparagus beds 
and let the chicks go out to pick up the larvae 
and insects. 

A certain remedy against the asparagus beetle, 
it is claimed, can be made by mixing one pound 



ASPARAGUS. 73 

of Paris green in loo gallons of water, sprink- 
ling over the plants twice each week on the first 
appearance of the insect. 

PACKING ASPARAGUS 

For shipping is best packed in boxes of a depth 
equal to the length of the bunch' or perhaps an 
inch deeper, because in packing, asparagus is 
placed on end, and some soft material, as moss, 
cotton or soft paper should be placed on top, so 
that should the box be turned upside down, the 
soft tops will not be injured. The interstices 
between should also be filled in, so that the 
whole may be firm enough to not be injured by 
jarring. 



CHAPTER VII I. 
EGG-PLANT. 

THE egg-plant of our gardens is a native of 
North Africa. It was first introduced 
into England in 1596, but for a long time was 
little known or used, owing much to the climate 
being unsuited to the perfect development of the 
fruit. In India and other hot countries it is a 
favorite article of food, and for many years it has 
steadily grown in favor in this country. In 
India it is served up with sugar and wine, and in 
Italy and Frauce it is used in stews and soups. 
"' " The possibility^ of forcing egg-plants suc- 
cessfully was suggested by a crop which w^as 
grown under glass in one of the market gardens, 
near Boston, in the spring of 1891. These 
plants were not grown wath the intention of 
forcing them ; but as the greenhouse w^as vacant 
at the time the main crop of egg-plants was set 
out of doors, it was filled with plants taken from 
the same lot as those set in the field. The beds 
in which they were set were solid, that is, the 
prepared soil rested on the surface of the ground 
forming a laA/er from twelve to fifteen inches in 
depth. During the preceding year those beds 

Bui. %()f C. U. 

74 



EGG-PIvANT. 75 

had served for growing lettuce and they had 
consequently been well enriched with stable 
manure, a fertilizer which is especially effective 
in the production of rapid growth. In July, 
when the plants grown under glass were com- 
pared with those planted in the open ground, an 
astonishing difference could be observed. Those 
set in the house were twice as large as the others. 
The leaves were larger and the stems thicker 
than those generally found in the gardens of 
this latitude, and the abundance of healthy 
foliage was ample proof that the plants were 
subjected to conditions extremely favorable to 
their growth. Another interesting point was 
soon noticed. Although the plants were bloom- 
ing quite freely, still comparative little fruit had 
set, and it appeared as if the entire energies of the 
plant had been directed toward the production 
of foliage at the expense of the fruit. This 
condition may be ascribed to two causes : 

"Extreme activity of the vegetative functions 
of plants is often carried on at the expense of 
fruit production ; this fact is commonly illus- 
trated by 3 oung fruit trees which blossom several 
years before they set any fruit. The growth of 
the egg-plants mentioned above was sufficiently 
luxuriant to suggest the possibility of its having 
some effect upon the fruiting powders of the 
plants. The second and most probable cause of 



76 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

this unsatisfactory fruiting may have been im- 
perfect pollination. Insects and especially bees, 
were not working so freel}^ in the house as out- 
side, and later experience has shown very clearly 
that in order to get a satisfactor}^ crop from egg- 
plants grown under glass, thorough pollination 
must be practiced. The foliage was so dense 
that the flowers were for the most part hidden. 
In such a position they were necessarily sur- 
rounded b}^ a damp atmosphere, especially when 
borne upon branches that were near the surface 
of the soil, and this would still further tend to 
interfere with the free transfer of pollen by 
natural agencies. Under such conditions a 
profitable yield could hardly be expected ; yet 
when carefully observed, the plants proved to be 
so full of suggestions regarding the proper 
method of treating them, they should have re- 
paid the time given to their culture by a plenti- 
ful harvest of ideas, if not of fruits. 

''Acting on the above hints several attempts 
have been made to grow egg-plants in forcing 
houses, with the object, however, of fruiting 
them out of season. The first lot of seed was 
sown x\ugust 30, 1893. It embraced the follow- 
ing varieties : Black Pekin, New York Im- 
proved, Early Dwarf Purple, Round Purple and 
Long White. The seed was sown about three- 
eights of an inch deep in rich potting soil. The 



EGG-PLANT. 77 

flats or shallow boxes, which contained the seed 
were placed in a warm house, and the after 
treatment was very similar to that commonly 
followed in the growing of tomatoes. 

"The seedlings required pricking out about 
four weeks after the seed was sown. They were 
set in 2j4 inch pots, where they remained until 
November 14th, when they were shifted into 4 
inch pots. On December 17th, or nearl}^ six 
weeks from the time of seed sowing, the plants 
liad filled these pots with roots, and they were 
again shifted, but this time into benches. The}^ 
were set two feet apart each way. The soil was 
about six inches deep and different in character 
in each of the two benches used. One bench 
had been filled with a mixture of equal parts of 
potting soil and manure from a mushroon bed. 
This formed a very rich and open soil which ap- 
peared to be capable of producing a strong 
growth. The second bench received a rich, 
sandy loam, which had previously been com- 
posted with about one-fourth its bulk of stable 
manure. The temperature of the house was 
that usually maintained in growing plants re- 
quiring a considerable amount of heat ; during 
the night the mercury fell to 65° and in the day 
time it stood at 70°-75°. In bright weather the 
house was still warmer. 

Considerable care was exercised in watering 
the plants, the soil being kept somewhat dr}^ ; 



78 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

when grown out of doors egg-plants withstand 
drought so well that such a course seemed ad- 
visable when growing them under glass. As 
the plants increased in size the leaves shaded 
the soil, and an occasional thorough watering 
maintained an excellent condition of moisture 
in the bed filled with the loam. In addition, 
the soil was stired with a hand weeder when 
necessar3^ 

For some time, all the varieties seemed to be 
doing uniformly well, but the plants set in the 
sandy loam made a stronger growth and appeared 
to be more vigorous. This was especially notice- 
able in the Early Dwarf Purple and the New 
York Improved. The first bloom appeared on 
the former during the last week in December, 
and on the 3d of January, 1894. Several plants 
showed flowers that were well opened. These 
were hand pollinated and they set fruit freely. 
On February 15th, some of these fruits were 2^^ 
inches long, the plants still growing well and 
producing many blossoms. It was at this time 
that the first flowers of Black Pekin appeared, 
but New York Improved had not yet produced 
any, although it was making a strong growth. 
Round Purple and Long White were making a 
very slow and weak growth. 

On May 29th, the one plant of Early Dwarf 
Purple had on it 21 fruits of varying sizes, and 



EGG-PLANT. 79- 

appeared to be strong enough to mature fruits 
from beds that were still forming. The larger 
fruits were four inches in diameter, and nearly 
six inches long. They were not removed as 
soon as grown, as should be done in order to get 
as large a yield as possible, and for this reason 
the product of the plant is the more remarkable. 
All the fruits did not attain the size mentioned 
above for the crop was too heavy for the plant to 
mature it properly ; neither were all the plants 
of this variety equally prolific, although their 
yield in mau}^ cases closely approched the above. 
This variety proved to be by far the most promis- 
ing of those grown for forcing purposes, and it 
appears to be capable of producing crops which 
rival those grown out of doors. It is also the 
earliest variety of those tested, a point which is 
of the greatest importance. This vegetable is 
slow in coming into maturity even under the 
most favorable circumstances. 

New^ York Improved was a very strong grower, 
and produced large, handsome fruits. Unfortu- 
nately, but few could be obtained from a plant, 
and the total yield was therefore comparatively 
small, only four or five maturing on the best 
plants. It is also considerably later than the 
Early Dwarf Purple. 

Black Pekin, on the whole, closely resembled 
the preceding, especially in the manner of its 



80 V^EGETABLE FORCING. 

growth. But it set scarcely any fruit, and that 
was so late that none were matured before ten 
months from the time of sowing the seed. 

Long White proved to be a weak grower of 
very slender habit. It is also very late, the 
fruits being scarcel}^ over two inches in length 
May 29th. The plants of this variety were 
slightly checked when young, and this mav 
have been a certain influence in delaying the 
maturity of the crop, although the effect was 
probably not very great. One desirable feature 
of this variety is its smooth foliage which ap- 
peared to be unfavorable for the development 
and presistence of some of the insects that 
attack greenhouse plants. But the lateness of 
the variety and the few fruits produced by it will 
prevent it from being profitably grown under 
glass. 

Round Purple proved to be the most unsatis- 
factory grower. All the plants showed symp- 
toms of being in unfavorable quarters, and the 
test with this variety resulted in total failure. 

Later attempts to force egg-plants have been 
made, although no duplicate of the above experi- 
ment has been planned. The crops were started 
later in the season when more heat and sunlight 
were present. These trials have thrown light 
upon some of the doubtful points of former ex- 
periments, and have shown what is probably the 



EGG-PLANT. 81 

principal cause of the slow maturing of all the 
varieties tested, and also the very weak growth 
of some. 

One of the results obtained is of especial in- 
terest in this connection. Some Early Dwarf 
Purple plants were started early in August and 
some of the seedlings were growm in the green- 
houses in which different degrees of temperature 
were maintained. The plants grown in an in- 
termediate or moderately warm house made but 
little growth, and were soon stunted and worth- 
less. This showed conclusively that egg-plants 
require a high temperature for their rapid and 
vigorous growth. Other plants were placed in 
each of two warm houses, one of which was 
shaded by means of a thin coat of whitewash 
upon the glass. The plants in the other house 
were exposed to direct sunlight and they were 
also subjected to a bottom heat of scarcely five 
degrees. Although the air temperature of the 
two houses was practically identical, the plants 
receiving the sunlight grew fully twice as fast 
as the others and had open blossoms before those 
in the shaded house showed any buds. When 
some of the latter were removed into the same 
favored position they very soon showed a benefit 
from the change. In this way the plants them- 
selves emphasized the necessity of plenty of 
sunlight for their development in winter quarters ; 



«2 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

and a certain amount of bottom heat, from four 
to six degrees, is also very beneficial, the tempera- 
ture at the same time being that of a warm 
house. 

Egg-plants designed for forcing should uever 
be stunted. An important aid to prevent this 
condition is a soil which is open and still rich 
in available nitrogen. A rich, sandy loam "in 
which all the ingredients are well rotted is 
preferable to one having the manure in an un- 
decayed condition. The latter is to open, and is 
more difficult to maintain a proper supply of 
moisture. The soil should be sufficiently open 
to afford good drainage, but not so coarse that it 
dries out too rapidly. 

The bench mentioned at the beginning of the 
article as containing manure from a spent mush- 
roon bed did not prove so satisfactory as the one 
containing the sandy loam, largely, because it 
was more difficult to manage. 

Another point not to be overlooked in forcing 
egg-plant is the pollination of the flowers. 

Egg-plants are subject to all the greenhouse 
pests, but if care is exercised from the beginning 
no serious damage need be feared. Aphis is 
easily overcome by tobacco smoke (as described 
elsewhere in this volume), while the mealy bug 
can be overcome by well directed streams of 
water. The foliage of egg-plants is not easily 



EGG-PIvANT. 83 

injured by such appHcatious of water and the 
insects may be dislodged with impunity as often 
as they appear. The worst pests of egg-plant 
foliage are the red spider and the mite. The 
latter is especially difficult to treat, as it is not 
so much affected by moisture as is the red spider, 
and for this reason can not be so easily over- 
come. The rough foliage of the egg-plant is 
especially well adapted to the lodgement of these 
mites, and when they have once become estab- 
lished their extermination is practically impos- 
sible. Too much care, therefore, cannot be 
taken in watching for the first appearance of 
these scourges, and in destroying them as soon 
as discovered. It is well to apply water freely 
to the foliage, even before the insects appear, for 
the leaves do not immediately show^ their pres- 
ence and such applications will do no harm. 
The Long White does not suffer from these in- 
sects so much as the other varieties, since it has 
comparatively smooth leaves which do not afford 
a very secure retreat. Nevertheless it will bear 
watching as well as the others. The water that 
is used should be directed mainly toward the 
under surface of the leaves, as the insects are 
here found in the greatest abundance, and the 
parts are also most difficult to reach. 

The returns to be derived from egg-plants 
grown in greenhouses cannot yet be estimated, 



S4 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

since to my knowledge no such products have 
ever been placed upon the market. The first 
fruits from the south command a good price, but 
whether the greenhouse article will meet with 
such favor that it will repay the cost of the long 
period of growth cannot be told. The experi- 
ment from a commercial standpoint is worth 
trying." 



CHAPTER IX. 
CELERY, PEAS AND BEANS. 

CELERY. 

IT has been found that celery cannot be forced 
as much as other vegetables. It has a 
tendency to run to seed when grown in 
hot houses. Celery can, however, be for- 
warded so as to be ready for market in May 
and June. At this season of the year 
there is but a very small amount of celery in 
market, the stored supply being exhausted and 
the field product does not mature until some 
time in July. In order to have celery suitable 
for market at this season of the year, the seed 
should be sown early in the winter, or late fall, 
as it requires a long time for the plants to ma- 
ture. The plants for two or three months take 
up but very little room, as the flats can be set 
in vacant places. 

About fifty days after the seed are sown, the 
plants should be transplanted into other flats^ 
allowing each plant about six square inches. 
They are left in these flats about thirty days, 
when they are set in permanent beds that have 
been occupied by lettuce, radishes or some other 
winter crop. 

85 



86 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

The temperature of the house should be kept 
low, and if the plants can be set in solid beds 
where there is no bottom heat, so much the bet- 
ter. After the plants have been in their perma- 
nent quarters, for about sixty or seventy days, 
they will be ready to bleach. 

This is the most difficult part of the work, as 
they rot at the least provocation. iVbout the 
only thing suitable for bleaching is heavy wrap- 
ping paper. The stalks are tied together, and 
a width of paper reaching nearly to the top of 
the plants, is rolled tightly around them. As 
the plant grows, another width of paper is rolled 
about the first, and again reaching nearl}^ to the 
top of the plant. From thirt}^ to fifty days are 
required for bleaching. 

The Kalamazoo celery is well adapted to house 
cultivation. The quality of this house-grown 
product is equal to that grown out of doors, and 
should be in good demand. 

BEANS. 

One of the best secondary greenhouse crops 
is the bean. From forty to sixty days after the 
seed are sown, the beans are ready for market. 
The seed should be planted in three-inch pots, 
two or three beans in each pot, and transplanted 
in the benches as soon as the roots fill the pots. 
The bench should contain eight or ten inches of 



CELERY. PEAS AND BEANS. 87 

rich, moist soil. The soil should never be allowed 
to become dry, and especial care must be taken 
to apply enough water to keep the bottom of the 
soil moist, and yet not enough to make the sur- 
face muddy. With bottom heat the soil is apt to 
become dry beneath. A house for forcing beans 
should be light, and the benches should be near 
the glass. The return heating pipes should be 
placed under the bench, and the space beneath 
the bench should be boarded up, so as to confine 
the heat to the bottom of the bed. 

The temperature of a bean house should never 
fall below 60°. In order to secure a large crop 
of tender pods, the growth should be rapid from 
the start. Applications of liquid manure, about 
once a week, will be very beneficial. Artificial 
pollination is not necessary, as the bean is "seef- 
fertile." Any variety that has a compact and 
rapid growth, and produces long, straight sym- 
metrical pods, is suitable for forcing. 

For market the beans are sorted and tied in 
bunches of fifty pods. These bunches bring 
varying prices, but from twenty-five to fifty cents 
may be considered as the average. At these 
figures, with a good demand, forced beans pay 
well. The enemies are few— red spider being 
the worst, and this is kept in check by maintain- 
ing a moist atmosphere. 

As with all other winter gardening, success 
depends on having new plants to take the place 



88 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

of the old ones, and thus not loosing any time. 
It is not profitable to allow the plants to stand 
after three or four pickings have been made. 
They should be pulled up, the beds forked over, 
adding a liberal quantity of strong manure, and 
new plants immediately set out. 

PEAS. 

The growing of peas in the greenhouse can- 
not be advised from a financial standpoint, owing 
to the small amount produced from a given area. 

Peas, when grown under glass, are very sensi- 
tive to heat, and the warm, sun-shining days of 
spring, check their growth to a marked degree. 
The most healthy and rapid growth is made 
during the winter months. 

For the benefit of those who wish to experi- 
ment with peas under glass, we quote the follow- 
ing from bul. 96 of Cornell University: " Dur- 
ing the past few years, peas have, at various 
times, been grown in the forcing houses at Cor- 
nell with the intention of determining their value 
as a commercial crop, and also to study their be- 
havior under glass. The forcing of peas has 
been carried on in northern Europe for many 
years, although on a somewhat different plan 
than that undertaken at this station. Foreign 
gardeners generally grow the winter crop in 
frames or hot-beds. In the neighborhood of 



CELERY, PEAS AND BEANS. 89 

Paris such protection is unnecessary, and suc- 
cessive sowings are made in the open air from 
November to March, one of the most popular 
varieties for this purpose being St. Catherine. 
This variety is particularly well adapted to late 
fall and earl}^ winter sowings. In more north- 
ern latitudes, either cold frames or hot-beds sup- 
pl}' the necessar}'^ protection for maturing the 
crop. Ringleader, Early Dwarf Frame, and 
Caractacus have been very popular in England. 
The second named variety is especially adapted 
for growing in hot-beds. It is exceedingly 
dwarf, and matures very quickly, so that consid- 
erable quantities of peas may be harvested from 
a small area. Taller varieties are generally 
bent over to admit of their proper grow^th. 

'Teas thrive in a cool temperature, and the 
protection afforded by comparatively little glass 
or wood is sufficient to carry them through mod- 
erately cold weather. In the northern states ar- 
tificial heat must be given if the crop is to be 
grown during the winter mouths. As this can- 
not be done conveniently in frames, larger struc- 
tures must be employed, and these may be easily 
supplied with the proper amount of heat for 
growing this vegetable. A night temperature 
of 40° to 50°, and a day temperature ten to twen- 
ty degrees higher, will be sufficient to cause 
rapid growth and fairly prolific plants. Peas 



90 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

succeed best, as a rule, if grown in solid beds of 
rich, sandy soil that is well supplied with water. 
If peas grown under glass are subjected to the 
above conditions, their culture presents no seri- 
ous difficulties, and it will scarcely be necessary 
to mention details of more than one crop which 
we have grown. Seeds of two varieties of peas 
were sown Jan. 6, 1894 ; they were Extra Early 
Market and Rural New Yorker. The^^ were 
planted at the same depth as in outdoor culture, 
but the seeds were sown more thickly, and the 
rows were as close to each other as the after cul- 
ture would allow. Very dwarf varieties, such 
as Tom Thumb and American Wonder, may be 
planted in rows three to five inches apart, de- 
pending on the richness of the soil, and the gen- 
eral care given the plants. Tall growing varie- 
ties, as Champion of England, may be sown in 
rows running in pairs, the distance between the 
rows of each pair being from six to ten inches, 
while the pairs are separated by spaces fifteen to 
eighteen inches wide. This will allow working 
room among the plants and still admit of heavy 
planting. 

'' One of the essential points in the successful 
growing of peas, whether in the greenhouse or 
out of doors, is the use of fresh seed. Garden 
peas retain their vitalit}- from three to eight 
3' ears, but the shorter period may be considered 



CKI^ERY, PEAS AND BEANS. 91 

as more nearly correct when applied to peas 
which are to be forced, since the loss of a week 
or two nnder glass is expensive, and two sowings 
cannot be afforded. The seedlings began to 
appear eight days after seed sowing, and they 
grew vigorously from the start. February 23d, 
Rural New Yorker showed first open blossoms, 
Extra Early Market at the same time having 
buds that were about to open. 

"On the 20th of March, or about seventy-three 
days from sowing of seed, both varieties had 
matured sufficient to supply pods that were fit 
for market, but no picking was made until eleven 
days later, when the plants yielded pods at the 
rate of six and one-half quarts for each thirty 
feet of double row. There was practically no 
difference between the two varieties as regards 
to earliness or the amount of yield obtained. 
Two weeks later a second and last picking was 
made, the plants yielded only one-half as much 
as before. This brings the total yield to a little 
over a peck. This is scarcely a profitable crop, 
especially since the varieties grown are quite 
tall and required a trellis. 

" Formerly the trellises used consisted of 
branches forced into the ground so that they would 
afford support to the vines. But with the crop 
here considered, a more satisfactory trellis was 
made by using a wire netting having large 



92 VEGETABI^E FORCING. 

meshes. This was fastened between the rows by 
means of stakes, and then each strip of netting 
served as a support for a double row. This forms 
the neatest and most substantial trellis here used 
for supporting the vines 

^'The yields from extremely dwarf varieties, 
such as Tom Thumb, have proved unsatisfac- 
tory. The plants require no support, but they 
yield only one picking and this is so light that 
their culture under glass cannot in ^11 cases be 
advised." 



PART I I. 



CONSTRUCTION 



OF 



FORCING HOUSES, 



SUB-IRRIGATION 



THE WATER BENCH 



CHAPTER X. 

LOCATION OF THE HOUSE AND CONSTRUCTION 
OF THE WALLS. 

FIRST let us consider the location. This 
will depend to a great extent on the 
contour of the land where the house is to be 
built. In locating the house or houses, means 
of drainage, especiall}^ for the boiler pit, should 
first be considered. The width and height of the 
different structures, and the shape of the roofs 
will have much to do in determining the exact 
location. Where the houses are not connected 
together in the ridge and furrow fashion, they 
should be built far enough apart so as to leave 
a drivewa}^ between them. Generally speaking 
a side hill, sloping to the south is to be pre- 
ferred, especially for the three-quarter span 
houses. A level spot is most desired for an 
even span house. Three-quarter span houses 
may be built in parallel lines running east and 
west, the even span houses may run in either 
direction — east and west or north and south. 

Where side ventilation is not desirable, the 
houses, in m.y opinion should be built in the 
ridge and burrow style. This saves lumber, 
time and expense in building the walls ; it also 

94 



IvOCATION OF THE HOUSE, ETC. 95 

saves land and is more economic in heating and 
operating the houses. 

The potting and working rooms should be 
located in a position accessible to all of the 
houses, and the packing room should be arranged 
so as to facilitate in getting up the orders. 

"In locating the various workrooms for a large 
establishment, it is well to have them in the 
center, with the houses running from both sides, 
east and west. A similar arrangement for the 
heating plant is also desirable : thus, rather than 
have the boiler room at one end of a long range 
of houses, the boiler-house could be placed in 
the center, and ' houses of half the length 
arranged on each side and better results obtained. "^ 
• 

THE WALLS. 

No small amount of time, care and expense 
should be expended in building greenhouse 
walls, they are, in most cases, neglected, and the 
result is that after five or six years they begin 
to tumble down, often causing considerable loss. 
The walls may be constructed of wood, brick,, 
stone, grout, or of a combination of material. 

WOODEN WALLS. 

It is estimated that nine-tenths of the green- 
houses at the present time have wooden walls. 
In their erection, posts of some double material,. 



96 ^ VEGETABLE FORCING. 

such as red cedar, locust or cypress, are placed 
in a straight line four feet apart. The posts 
should be set three or four feet deep in the 
ground, and unless the ground is quite firm and 
solid, a flat stone should be placed under the 
post, and the hole filled up with dirt and stone, 
firmly packed. This will hold the post firmiv 
in its place and have a tendency to preserve it. 
The size of the posts should vary from four b}* 
four inches for low walls and narrow houses, to 
six by six inches for high walls and wide houses. 
The length will, of course, depend upon the de- 
sirable height of the w^alls. Inch boards, of al- 
most any description, are nailed on the outside 
of the posts, care being taken to have the boards 
well matched. In our own houses we have used 
hemlock exclusively, and it has given perfect 
satisfaction. On the outside of these boards is 
tacked some kind of heavy building paper. For 
the outer covering the patent drop siding will 
be found preferable to almost any other kind. 
It is not necessary in vegetable forcing houses 
to ceil up the posts on the inside ; but if this is 
•done the intervening space should not be filled 
up with sawdust or any other material, as this 
will absorb moisture and cause a rapid decay of 
the walls. When the walls are ceiled on the in- 
side they often become an harbor for mice and 
rats, thus proving to be an injury instead of a 
benefit. 



LOCATION OF THE HOUSE, ETC. 97 

BRICK WALLS. 

Brick walls are not very desirable, as the ac- 
tion of frost and moisture make them compara- 
tively short lived. When brick walls are built, 
the ver}^ hardest brick that can be obtained 
should be used, as they will not disintegrate or 
crumble so easily as the softer ones. 

A solid brick wall should never be built in a 
greenhouse as it will radiate the heat very rap- 
idly. There should be at least one air space in it. 
Two tiers of brick, with one inch of an air space, 
making a nine inch wall, will answer for a low 
house. The tiers should be firmly tied together 
every fourth course vertically, and every three 
or four bricks along the wall. In the walls of 
high houses a post should be put in every eight 
or ten feet, and a third tier of bricks on the in- 
side of the wall, extending one-half or two- thirds 
the height of the wall, will strengthen it consid- 
erable. 

MASONRY WALLS.* 

The use of stone or grout (cement, sand and 
cobble stones) for the construction of the founda- 
tion of brick walls, is very common, and, as they^ 
make a durable wall, would, no doubt, be largely 
used up to the plates, were it not that they were 
rapid conductors of heat. In small greenhouses, 
where the grade can be carried up to the 

*L. R. Taft's Greenhouse Construction p. 24. 



98 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

plate, so that none of the wall is exposed to the 
outside air, they make excellent walls. 

The excavation should be to a depth of three 
feet below the proposed outside grade level, and 
of a width to admit of a fifteen or eighteen inch 
footing course. This should occupy the trench 
up to the level of the interior of the house, at 
any rate, and even if brick or other material is 
used for the upper part of the wall, may extend 
to the level of the ground outside, which is from 
two to five feet above that of the interior. Stone 
conducts heat quite rapidly, and for that reason 
will not be desirable for a wall above ground, 
unless made very thick. This objection does 
not hold to the same extent with grout, and 
where small stones can be readily obtained, it 
makes a cheap and very durable wall. For a 
house not over twenty-five feet wide, and when 
less than five feet in height, a wall of grout 
twelve inches thick will answer. This should 
rest on an eighteen inch footing course of the 
same material. The materials required are, 
stones from two to four inches in diameter, 
gravel and water lime. In making the wall, a 
box of the desired width is made by driving 
stakes along the line of the wall on each side, 
and setting up twelve inch -planks for the sides 
of the box. In this a layer of stones is placed, 
which should be packed in carefully, and kept, 



LOCATION OF THE HOUSE, ETC. 99 

at least, one-half iuch from the planks. The 
cement is then prepared by thoroughly mixing 
one part with three parts gravel, and then adding 
enough water to thoroughly moisten it. The 
best results are obtained, if it is about the same 
consistency as ordinary lime mortar. The water 
should not be added until the gravel and cement 
have been mixed. A layer of cement from two 
to three inches thick over the stones will be 
sufficient ; this should be well tramped down, 
filling all of the space between the stones. An- 
other layer of cement and stones can then be 
added, and the process repeated until the box is 
filled, requiring about three layers. One wall 
of the house can be built at a time, although if 
planks are at hand it will be well to allow one 
to set while a course is being put in the other. 
After the grout has been setting for five or six 
hours, the plank may be raised their own width, 
and the box will thus be prepared for another 
course. In this way a wall of any desired height 
can be built, which will be quite durable and in 
every way satisfactory. 

THE GUTTER AND ROOF. 

When the houses are built in the ridge and 
furrow style, a board, (cypress is generally used) 
two inches thick and ten or twelve inches wide, 
is placed on top of the wall to carry off the water. 



100 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

The top of the wall should be made perfectly 
smooth, with a slope of about two inches in 
every one hundred feet. If the gutter will not 
hold all the water coming from the roof, holes 
may be made in the bottom and the water car- 
ried off by means of tile. 

When the houses are not connected together^ 
and on the outside wall of the outer house in the 
range, a simple plate ma}^ be used. In this case 
the top of the wall is made to have the same 
angle as the roof. 

'' In some cases a wooden wall built in exactly 
the same way as the wall of a dwelling house, 
is prefered to the ' post and board wall.' For 
this, a foundation of stone, brick or grout, ex- 
tending to the outside grade line, is necessary,, 
and an excellent plan is to have two, or even 
three feet of the wall below this lev^el, with a 
corresponding excavation for the house, necessi- 
tating the erection of a wooden wall of the same 
height above. In this way the exposed surface 
is greatly reduced, and a durable and warm wall 
will be secured. The sill for this wall should 
be a two by four inch scantling, with studding 
of the same size, placed two feet apart. The 
sides and top can be arranged in the same man- 
ner as when posts are used. If there is danger 
of latteral pressure, the sills should be securely 
anchored to the foundation. This form of wall 
is especially desirable for narrow houses.'' 



LOCATION OF THE HOUSE, ETC. 101 

THE ROOF. 

The old style of roof was to make a frame of 
rafters and heavy ridge pole. The glass being 
placed in ordinary hot-bed sash and the sash 
placed on the rafters. Every alternate sash be- 
ing fastened with a hinge and used as a venti- 
lator. The other sash were fastened permanent- 
ly to the ridge pole and plate or gutter, thus 
making a tight roof. 

The newer and better form of roof is construct- 
ed of "permanent sash bars." There is quite a 
number of patent bars, many of them are made 
of iron, but the old wooden sash bar is still pre- 
ferred for commercial houses, while the sash 
bars in some of the best modern houses are iden- 
tical with those in use thirty years ago. 

It is desirable to have the sash bars made 
with a gutter on each side so as to catch the con- 
densed moisture, and prevent it from drippings 
on the plants. During the dull months of 
mid-winter, the drip falling on a crop of lettuce 
often causes what is known as lettuce rot. This 
disease will completely ruin a bed of lettuce ia 
a very short time. 

The sash bars should be made of cypress, as 
it is the strongest and most durable wood that 
can be had. Ordinary white pine is quite often 
used, but if it is neglected and not painted once 
or twice each year it will soon decay. 



102 VEiGETABLE FORCING. 

Cypress is also more stiff and straighter grain- 
ed, and sash bars can he made smaller, thus let- 
ting more light in the house. " While many 
houses are built without rafters, the sash bars 
being all of one size, the usual forcing-house 
construction is to have every fifth sash bar of the 
nature of a rafter, either two by four inches, or 
in large houses, two by five inches. The ven- 
tilators are then placed in a continuous row on 
one, or both sides of the ridge, occupying a space 
of fifteen to thirty inches wide, each sash ex- 
tending from one rafter to the next. When this 
method is used, a two by four inch header is 
mortised into the rafters just under the lower 
edge of the ventilator, and the sash bars fitted 
into this, at their upper end, the lower end be- 
ing nailed to the wall plate." 

In m}^ own estimation, and the method that 
has been followed m building our houses, is to 
have all of the sash bars to run from the ridge 
pole to the gutter, or plate, thus letting in more 
light by dispensing with the heavy rafters. 
Short headers are placed between the sash bars, 
instead of the long ones between the rafters. 
These short headers should be grooved to receive 
the glass on the lower side. Not many of the 
general lumber working factories have the 
necessary machinery for making the deep 
grooves in the sash bars and crevices in the 



IvOCATION OF THE HOUSE, ETC. 103 

headers, so it will be necessary to obtain them 
from some firm dealing in greenhouse material. 
I know of no better firm than the Lockland 
Lumber Co., Lockland, Ohio. We have pur- 
chased considerable of greenhouse material from 
them, and know them to be perfectly honest and 
reliable. (See their ad. in the back part of this 

volume.) 

IRON HOUSES. 

We have not had any experience with "Iron 
Houses," but we do not think them suitable for 
vegetable forcing for various reasons. For the 
benefit of those who desire to build iron houses, 
we quote the following from L. R. Taft's ''Green- 
house Construction." He says : 

"For many years houses built entirely of iron 
and glass, have been used in Europe, and they 
are now frequently built in this country. In 
favor of these houses it is claimed that they are 
almost indestructible, and that, if the iron is 
galvanized, there will be no necessity for paint- 
ing the houses. In some cases, zinc or copper is 
used for the sash bars, and the same claims are 
made for those houses. For the most part, these 
claims are true, and although one could afford to 
pay an increased price for iron houses that would 
need no outlay for repairs or renewal, provided 
everything else is desirable. There are several 
serious objections to iron houses, that have for 



104 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

the most part, restricted their use to large con- 
servatories, and, even there, the combined 
wood and iron construction is fairly holding its 
own. 

''The objections may be stated as follows: 

"ist. As iron is a rapid conductor of heat, the 
amount thus taken from the house by the iron 
sash bars will be, perhaps, three to five times as 
great as would be the case were the wooden sash 
bars of the same size used, and this requires a 
noticeable increase in the amount of fuel con- 
sumed. Several builders of iron houses, however, 
have so reduced the amount of iron exposed to 
the outer air, that, so far as radiation is con- 
cerned, there is, perhaps, no great difference. 

''2d. With several of the methods of glazing, 
the packing used, although tight at first, soon 
becomes loose and allows the heated air to pass 
through the cracks. 

"3d. Even if the roof is water tight, there will 
be a large amount of water congealed on the 
under side of the sash bars at night, which, 
melting as the heat rises in the morning, causes 
quite a shower. (This would be very detrimen- 
tal to vegetable forcing.) Frequently, in sys- 
tems where large glass is used, a metallic strip 
is placed between the panes to act as a gutter to 
catch the moisture condensed on the glass. If 
it works all right there should be no drip from 
the glass, but they finally become clogged. 



LOCATION OF THE HOUSK, ETC. 105 

"4th. Even if such is not the case in England, 
it is found, in our extremes of temperature, that 
unequal expansion and contraction sometimes 
crack the large panes, unless everything is very 
carefully adjusted, so that there is more or less 
broken glass. 

"These objections have more force with the 
sash bars used for skylight glass, in conserva- 
tories, and do not hold true to the same extent 
when used for smaller panes in forcing houses. 
In conservatories, however, although the drip is 
not desirable, it does far less injur}^ than in 
houses used for forcing and growing plants, and 
one will need to place the greater durability and 
cheapness of maintenance of the metal roofs 
against the acknowledged increase of fuel re- 
quired to heat the houses. The use of iron sash 
bars with metallic glazing, for commercial forcing 
houses, has not become general, as the matter of 
drip and of fuel, to say nothing in the increased 
first cost of the houses, are questions of con- 
siderable moment." 

The use of iron posts and rafters has been for 
some time, and their use is becoming more and 
more into general practice. The question of 
durability should receive more attention than it 
has in the past. There can be no question but 
that, in the construction of greenhouses, in the 
future iron will be quite largely used. 



106 VEiGETABLE FORCING. 

"Various methods of construction are now in 
use, one of the best combining a framework of 
iron with wooden sash bars. For forcing houses, 
the rafters are about three by one-half inch, and 
are surmounted by a w^ooden rafter cap. The 
rafters are fastened to each other and to the 
ridge, by iron knees or brackets. The purlines 
are of one and one-half inch to two inch angle 
iron, and are fastened to the rafters by means of 
iron lugs. If desired, gas pipe purlines can be 
used. With large glass, and small sash bars, 
the purlines should be quite close together, but 
as the size of the glass decreases, they may be 
further apart. While four feet wnll not be none 
too little in one case, they may be as much as 
eight feet in the other. When the ventilators 
are in long rows, on either side of the ridge, the 
upper line of purlines should be under the lower 
edge of the sash, and should carry a wooden 
header, into which the upper ends of the sash 
bars are mortised. To the other purlines the 
sash bars are fastened by means of wood screws.'^ 

'' When the distance between the rafters or 
other supports is not over six or seven feet, one- 
inch gas pipes will make quite a stiff roof. 
The}^ can be inserted in holes in wooden rafters 
when these are used, or can be held up by 
means of small castings attached to iron rafters. 
When the roof is constructed of sash bars, with- 



LOCATION OF THE HOUSE, ETC. 107 

out the use of rafters, a continuous line of pipe 
supported by posts, at intervals of six feet, will 
form a good purline. The pipe may be cut in 
lengths of six feet, and screwed into the tees to 
which the posts are attached, or, what is per- 
haps easier to put up, the tees are reamed out^ 
so as to allow the pipe to slip through them. 
The lengths are screwed together, and, if de- 
sired, can be used as water pipes. If the purline 
is connected by screw-joints with one or more of 
the posts on each side, a hose can be attached, 
and, although the effect will not be lasting, the 
water in the pipes will have the chill taken off. 
When a pipe purline is used, with supports more 
than eight feet apart, it does not give good satis- 
faction, as it is more or less liable to sag. In 
order to hold the sash bars firmly down on the 
purlines, iron clips can be used, which should be 
screwed to at least every other sash bar." 

In houses less than fifteen feet wide, with a 
walk in the center, no center posts need be used^ 
if the wall posts are set firm, especially if a truss 
bracket is used in the angle of the roof, there 
will be no danger of its sagging. As the width 
of the house increases more support is neces- 
sary. In modern houses that are over fifteen 
feet wide, the ridge should be supported by 
means of a row of one inch or one and one-fourth 
inch gas pipe. These posts should be placed 



108 VEGETABI^E FORCING. 

every ten or twelve feet. If the rafters are 
more than nine feet long, they should be sup- 
ported in the center by another row of posts. 

In wide houses a purline should be placed 
every six feet, and every purline should be sup- 
ported by a row of posts. 

When it is desirable to have the center bed 
elevated, when possible, the purline posts should 
be placed so as to serve for legs to support it. 
This can be done by cutting the posts, at the 
proper height, and inserting tees into which 
the cross supporters of the bed are screwed. 
The top end of the posts are screwed into tees 
in the purline, and the lower ends should be 
placed on a solid, durable foundation that will 
hold them securely in their places. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

GLASS AND GLAZING. 

^T^HE glass most commonly used at present, 
I (1896) is known as "A'' quality and 

either ''single" or ''double" strength. This 
quality of glass, it is true, is considerable more 
expensive than the '* B," '' C " or " D " quality. 
But it is less likely to burn the plants, and as 
it will stand a much harder blow, the breakage 
from hail storms and by accident will be much 
less, so that it will be cheaper in the end. 

In buying glass it should be carefully noted 
that every box bears the brand of the quality 
that you contracted for. Choose the boxes that 
are the least bruised and scuffed, as this indi- 
cates that they have been handled with care, 
and the glass is less liable to be broken than 
that contained in the badly damaged boxes. 
Glass that is of even thickness, flat and free 
from imperfections that will cause sun-burns, 
should be used. The imperfections in the glass 
are caused from air bubbles, unmelted specks, 
or various impurities. As the substances of 
which glass is composed are fused together, the 
impurities settle to the bottom, leaving the glass 
at the top perfectly clear and transparent. From 

109 



110 veg?:table forcing. 

this the "A" quality is taken, " B " comes from 
a layer just beneath, and so on down the scale 
until " D " and " E" are reached, which should 
never be used on a greenhouse roof. The lower 
grades are made by poor workmen, and not only 
are they likely to contain imperfections, but are 
less even in thickness. 

SIZE OF GLASS. 

The size of glass used for greenhouse pur- 
poses, has been greatly increased within the last 
few years. A comparatively short time ago, 
glass as small as five by seven inches was used 
almost exclusively. But in many houses of to- 
day we find panes that are twenty-four inches, 
wide. The extremely large glass makes a very 
light house, well suited to forcing vegetables, 
but it is generally thought advisable to use a 
smaller size. The cost of glass, after the size 
passes eighteen inches in width, increases very 
rapidly. This not only makes the first cost 
more, but it also increases the cost of repairs. 

I think the best size, for the common forcing- 
houses, is from twelve to sixteen inches wide, 
i. <?., for the northern states, where there is a 
heavy snow fall. The weight of the snow is 
likely to break the wide glass. 



GIvASS AND GIvAZING. Ill 

GLAZING. 

This sould be done with great care, the great 
desiderata being to make a roof as near air and 
water proof as possible, and to have the glass 
fastened securely, so that the wind will not have 
a tendency to loosen it. I have seen houses, 
that after a wind storm, nearly one-third of the 
glass would be blown off and broken. 

Nearly all glass is more or less curved, and 
if two panes in which the curves are not equal 
are placed together, there is likely to be a crack 
somewhere, either at the corners or in the cen- 
ter. Therefore, the glass should be sorted, and 
if the curves are of different angles, those of one 
angle should be put in one row, and those of 
another angle put in another row. Until quite 
recently, the method of glazing, almost univer- 
sally adopted, was to lap the glass from one- 
eighth to one-fourth of an inch, the upper pane 
extending down on the edge of the pane be- 
low. The glass was imbedded in putty, and 
fastened to the sash bar by means of large glaz- 
ing points, using no putty on top. The glazing 
points used were triangular, the corner of which 
was bent down, so that when it was driven in^ 
it would fit against the lower edge of each pane 
and prevent it from slipping down. It was 
found that when the glass laid on the sash bars, 
thus imbedded, the putty soon rots or wears 



112 VEiGETABIvE FORCING. 

out, and water gets in, and not only loosens the 
glass, but rots the bar as well. This was obvi- 
ated by pouring along the junction of the bar 
with the glass a thin line of white lead in oil, 
over which is shaken dry while sand. These 
old methods are rapidly giving way to the newer 
and more practicable system of 

" BUTTED GLASS." 

This method of glazing is fast coming into 
general use. Some of its advantages are as fol- 
lows : 

ist. A tighter roof can be made, thus sav- 
ing considerable fuel, and lessening the amount 
of drip. 

2d. There is less danger from broken 
glass, either from ice forming between the panes 
when lapped, or from accidents, as, when a lap- 
ped pane is broken it frequently cracks the one 
beneath. 

3rd. More benefit can be derived from the 
sun, for when the glass is lapped, soot and dust 
soon collect between the laps, making an opaque 
streak, and even when this is not so, the double 
glass at the lap obstructs more light than the 
single glass. 

4th. When the clipper sash bar is used, 
butted glass can be put on a roof four or five 
times as fast as where the old style bar is used, 



GLASS AND GLAZING. 113 

as it does not require any putty or white lead, 
except between the panes, and many do not even 
do this. The glass is simply placed on the sash 
bars, (care being taken not to leave any crack 
between the panes) and the clipper, or cap is 
screwed down, thus making the panes perfectly 
tight, and nothing can loosen them, unless they 
are broken. 

When it is desirable to put putty between the 
joints, a mixture of equal parts of w^hite lead 
and putty is spread out in a thin layer on a 
smooth board. The ends of the glass are then 
dipped into the mixture and placed on the bar. 
Each pane should be tried to see if it will fit up 
close, before it is dipped. There is a patented 

GLAZING STRIP, 

But it has not, as yet, come into general use. 
*'It consists of a narrow^ strip of zinc bent into 
the shape of the letter Z, which is placed between 
the panes so that one leg of the Z is under the 
upper panes, and the other leg over the under 
ones." 

The chief objection to these strips, is, that it 
is necessary to fill the crack between the strip 
and glass to make a tight joint, thus requiring 
extra time and labor. But when once properly 
put together, will make the roof water-tight 
much longer than when the lead alone is used. 



114 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

When the strips are not properly laid, and the 
filling of the cracks is neglected, there will be 
much more drip than when the strips are not 
used. 

These strips also shut out a small portion of 
light, but this does not amount to a great deal 
when the large panes are used. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

VENTILATORS. 

TT^LANTS, as well as animals, must have fresh 
I ,, air. In vegetable forcing it is necessary to 
have the houses well ventilated, if the}^ are not, 
success wiil be impossible. 

The air in forcing houses is always, or nearly 
always, warmer than that on the outside, it nat- 
urally ascends, hence ventilators are more effec- 
tive when placed at the highest part in the build- 
ing. If an opening is made for the escape of 
warm air, fresh air will immediately take its 
place. 

Direct drafts of cold air on the plants should 
be prevented, this can be done by the proper 
arrangement of the ventilators and heating pipes. 

When the ventilators are hinged to the ridge 
pole, they should be on the opposite side from 
which the prevailing winds blow. When they 
are hinged to the headers, they should be on the 
side against which the prevailing wind blows. 
Some writers advocate that a row of ventilators 
be placed on each side of the ridge, those on one 
side being hinged to the ridge, and those on the 
other being hinged to the headers, thus if the 
wind blows in on one side, the ventilation may 
be given from the other side. 

115 



116 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

In some houses large ventilators have been 
placed at intervals along the roof; but much 
better results are obtained when only one sash 
bar is left between the ventilators, thus making 
almost a continuous ventilator. Ventilators thus 
arranged will give more ventilation than where 
there is a continuous row. 

THE sash! 

The sash are made similar to hot bed sash, 
the bars running crosswise instead of length- 
wise. The glass used for the sash should be of 
the same width as that used for the rest of the 
house, so that the bars in the sash will lay di- 
rectly over the sash bars. 

SASH LIFTERS. 

Various styles of machines are used for this 
purpose. In the majority of them, the power is 
conveyed by a gas pipe shaft, running length- 
wise of the house near the ventilators. The 
shaft is factened either to the ridge posts, rafters 
or sash bars, by means of small hangers. The 
power is applied to the sash by means of elbows, 
one end of which is fastened to the shaft and the 
other end to the sash. 

"Of the machines used to work the shafting, 
with its elbow fixtures, the simplest is the kind 
generally used by greenhouse builders. It con- 



VENTILATORS. 117 

sists of a large wheel upon the shaft, worked by 
a worm upon the upper end of a rod, to which 
the power is applied by means of a crank, or 
hand wheel." 

The "Standard," manufactued by E. Hippard, 
Youngstown, Ohio, is a very easy machine to 
operate, and has given us good satisfaction. We 
have used no other in our houses at Hanging 
Rock, Ohio. It is stated that, in the old ma- 
chines, the large wheel on the shaft sometimes 
slipped, or was pushed away from the pinion, but 
with the new double header this is impossible. 
The power is applied, by means of a hand wheel 
or worm to the vertical shaft which works inside 
the post. At the upper end of the shaft is a 
pinion, by which the power is conveyed to the 
shaft. 



CHAPTER XV. 
BENCHES AND BEDS. 

BENCHES. 

THE best greenhouse benches are made of 
iron and tile, or slate, but the average 
Vegetable Forcer thinks that he cannot afford to 
go to this expense, he therefore puts up wooden 
structures, which are a constant source of trouble 
and expense. Built as they usually are, of cheap 
or waste lumber, they will not last to exceed four 
years. It often happens that considerable loss 
is occasioned by trying to run the benches for a 
year longer than they will stand. Not only are 
plants lost, that were on the bench when it suc- 
cumbed to their weight, but time, labor and money 
must be expended in the construction of a new 
bench. With a little attention in constructing 
and caring for 

WOODEN BENCHES, 

their durability can be greatly increased. 

When wooden legs are used they should be 
lifted above the soil and walk, upon a brick or 
stone pile. This will keep the lower end dry, 
and prevent decay to some extent. Red cedar, 
locust, cypress, or white pine are suitable for 
posts, C3^press being preferred. 

118 



BENCHKS AND BEDS. 119 

In case the walls of the house are made of wood, 

one end of the timbers supporting the bench,' 

can be nailed to the posts in the wall. "When 

the wall cannot be used to support the backs of 

the side benches, wooden legs can be used the 

same as for the fronts." These should be about 

two by four inches square and from two to five 

and a half feet high, according to circumstances. 

Two by four inch scantling is large enough 

for the cross bearers under narrow benches, that 

is, when they are not over three feet in width. 

For wider benches, the size of the scantling 
should increase with the width of the bench, side 
benches, however, should not be over three, or 
three and one-half feet in width, as they will be 
inconvenient in setting out the plants. These 
cross bearers should not be over four feet apart, 
if the bottom of the bench is to be made of 
boards. Common six by one inch fencing plank 
make a very good bottom, placing them close to- 
gether and by pouring a thin coat of cement over 
them, the bed will be absolutely water tight, and 
give good service for quite a number of years. 
(For further particulars about water-tight benches 
see chapter on Sub-irrigation.) 

When it is possible, we would advise the use 
of gas pipe for the legs and cross bearers, as 
they are easily put up, and will last a lifetime. 
The lower end of the front row of legs are set 



120 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

on locust, or cedar posts. On the upper end of 
each leg is screwed a tee, into the latteral hole 
of this tee, one end of the cross bearer isinserted^ 
the other end being fastened to the wall of the 
house. To support the plank forming the side 
of the bench, a piece of pipe about six or seven 
inches long is screwed into the end of the tee. 
This holds the side board in its place, and pre- 
vents it from "warping over." The front boards 
can, if desired, be placed outside the pipe, and 
be heid in place b}^ iron clips. For the front 
and back of the benches six inch boards are used. 
Greenhouse benches vary in width, to a large 
degree, with the width of the house. The side 
benches are sometimes as narrow as two feet, 
and seldom are wider than three and one-half 
feet, four feet being the maximum. The center 
benches range from seven to twelve feet, when 
they are built up solid from the floor of the 
house, and are over eight feet wide, a narrow 
path is made through the center. 

SOLID BEDS. 

For growing many vegetable crops the solid 
beds are very desirable, as the}^ hold moisture 
exceedingly well. They are also very inexpen- 
sive. If the underlying soil is loose and sandy, 
a layer of clay is placed over it and packed 
down to make it as near water tight as possible. 



BENCHES AND BEDS. 121 

On top of this is placed six or seven inches of 
prepared compost. The walls, to keep the soil 
in place, are made of plank, or brick, one inch 
boards are preferred, as the brick take up too 
much space. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
METHODS OF HEATING. 

HAVING completed the "sheir' of our house, 
let us now consider some of the methods 
of heating. Throughout the northern states, 
most of the plants grown in the vegetable forc- 
ing-house require artificial heat during six or 
eight months of the year. Some crops thrive 
best at a temperature of 40° to 50° and will not 
be injured if exposed to one or two degrees of 
frost, while others require a temperature of 
70° or more. In order to maintain the proper 
temperature, various methods have been in 
practice. 

The simplest way of producing heat for plant 
growth, is by slowly decomposing vegetable 
matter. This, however, is only used in hot beds, 
and could not be used to heat a greenhouse of 
any considerable size. 

The old smoke flue has answered a good 
purpose in its day, but " the old must give place 
for the new." It cost little for construction, but 
requires considerable of expense to run it, 
especially in the items of fuel and attendance. 
In some sections of the country the flue is still 
made use of in heating small greenhouses, but 

122 



METHODS OF HEATING. 123 

all the larger commercial houses are heated by 
steam or hot water. 

The hot water system, "was one of the first 
to be used for the heating of greenhouses in 
modern times, it is claimed that the circulation 
of hot water, as a means of conveying heat, was 
used by the old Romans in heating their dwel- 
lings. It went out of use, however, until 1777, 
when a Frenchman, Bonnemain, re-introduced 
it. Ancient as the method is, the hot water 
systems of to-day are comparatively modern in- 
ventions, and bear little resemblence to those 
used even fifty years ago ; in fact, the change 
has been so recent that many of the systems in 
use to-day are built on quite different principles 
from those constructed according to the latest 
ideas." 

It is stated that the Romans used circulating 
pipes made of bronze, and the first pipes used 
for greenhouse heating were fivt inches in 
diameter, these, however, were made of copper. 
The heaters, or in reality, large open kettles, 
were also made of copper. These kettles were 
placed over furnaces, and from them the pipes 
run to the other end of the house, where they 
entered a copper reservoir. The pipes forming 
the flow, left the kettle at the top and the return 
pipes entered at the bottom. 

"The use of steam in closed circuits was in- 
vented by Mr. Hague, in England, about 1820, 



124 V^EGETABLE FORCING. 

although certain methods in which the steam 
passed off at the further end of the house, had 
been previously in use. At this time the con- 
struction of apparatus was such as to require 
almost constant attention to fires in order to 
maintain the temperature. Frequent repairs 
were needed and explosions were common." 

"The use of steam for heating purposes began 
to receive marked attention some fifteen years 
ago. In the discussions of the Society of 
American Florists, in 1885, the average from 
estimates in answer to circulars b}' nearly fifty 
florists showed that one ton of coal with hot 
water heated 108 square feet of glass to a tem- 
perature of 53^3 degrees, while with steam the 
same amount heated 149 square feet to a tem- 
perature of 6o^>4^ degrees." 

Peter Henderson, in 1885 and 1886, made the 
first really comparative test of steam and hot 
water heating. The trial was made with two 
houses of the same size and construction, one 
being fitted with a steam boiler and pipes, the 
other with a hot water outfit. By weight of the 
coal, it was found that the house heated with 
steam used twenty-five percent less fuel than the 
house heat with hot water. 

In a pamphlet on greenhouse heating, by A. 
B. Fowler, steam is considered preferable. 

"In 1888 two houses wxre constructed at the 
Massachusetts Experiment Station as nearly 



METHODS OF HEATING. 125 

alike as possible, with boilers of the same make 
and pattern, one fitted for steam, the other for 
hot water. The following winter careful obser- 
vations were made of temperatures and the 
amount of fuel consumed. The results showed 
a saving of nearly twenty per cent, of coal in 
favor of hot water heating, while the average 
temperature of the house was slightl}^ higher. 
The temperature was also more uniform in the 
house heated by hot water. The test was re- 
peated in the following winter and showed a still 
greater advantage in favor of hot water, there 
being a saving of over thirty per cent, in the 
fuel consumed." 



CHAPTER XVII. 
HEATING BY HOT WATER. 

THE BOILER. 

HUNDREDS of designs of hot water heaters 
have been put on the market, and there 
are several that it is hard to decide which is 
reall}^ superior. 

The wrought iron heater is more likely to 
rust, and is also injured more than cast iron by 
the sulphurous and other gas that comes from 
combustion. For these reasons it is claimed by 
some that cast iron boilers will last much longer 
than those made of wrought iron. With some 
boilers this has reall}^ been the case, but they 
were not made of the double strength pipe, of 
which they should have been. When none of the 
pipes used are less than one and one-fourth inch, 
and these made of double strength iron, the 
durability will be greatly increased. 

The boiler should be simple, durable and com- 
pact. The direct fire heating surface should be 
properly arranged and adjusted to the grate 
area. The water sections and tubes should also 
have the proper arrangement, so as to facilitate 
the circulation in the boiler. The boiler should 
be so constructed that every part can be cleaned 

126 



HEATING BY HOT WATER. 127 

without causing extra work in tearing down and 
putting up the different parts. It should have 
as near a perfect draft adjustment as possible 
and the grate should be so arranged as to remove 
the ashes and clinkers with ease and rapidity. 
Every part of the boiler should be interchange- 
able or easily repaired. 

"The circulation in the heater should be as 
short as possible, and it is better to have the 
water spread out in thin sheets, and with the 
arrangement such that the water is divided into 
a number of portions, each of which makes a 
single short circulation, than it is to have the 
entire mass of water that flows through the 
heater warmed by convection, or compelled to 
pass in a zigzag course through a number of dif- 
ferent tubes and sections." 

So far as circulation is concerned, vertical 
tubes are preferred to those that are horizontal, 
as the friction is lessened. But the friction in a 
horizontal pipe is so small that it is more than 
counterbalanced by the increasing efficiency of 
the horizontal fire surface. Boilers that have 
drop tubes over the fire box, are advantageous 
for both, vertical circulation and horizontal fire 
surface. The only objection to this kind of 
tubes is that the water cannot be drawn from 
them. 



128 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

DISTRIBUTING PIPES. 

Until quite recently the pipes used to carry 
the hot water through the house, were made of 
cast iron, being four inches in diameter and 
fastened together by means of large shoulders 
and packed joints, they were very heavy and 
clumsy to handle. But in the improved hot 
water system of to-day, the largest pipe used in 
the coils are not over two inches in diameter, 
while one and one-fourth and one and one-half 
inch pipe are used for the short courses. 

In the new system the lengths of pipe are 
about three times as long and can be screwed to- 
gether, instead of packing every joint. The 
four inch pipe contains four times as much water 
as the two inch pipe, yet they only have twice 
the radiating surface. On account of the large 
pipe being so heavy it is necessary to place it low 
down under the benches, just a trifle above the 
top of the heater, while the small pipe can be 
carried to the highest part of the house if desired, 
and thus a far more rapid circulation is main- 
tained. 

Advocates for the large pipe, claim that it is 
safer to use, as it will hold the heat for a longer 
time, if the fire should be allowed to go out. 
This is undoubtedly true, but with a well 
arranged system an even temperature can be 
maintained with small pipes for ten to twelve 
hours, on mild winter nights. 



HEATING BY HOT WATER. 129 

NUMBER AND POSITION OF PIPES. 

For most commercial establishments it is pre- 
ferred to have a combination of over-head and 
nnder-bench piping ; the main or flow pipe be- 
ing placed over-head near the ridge and under 
the ventilators ; the return pipes being placed 
under the side benches. By placing one or 
more of the flows under the ventilators, they 
warm the cold air to a considerable extent, as it 
passes over them, thus protecting the plants 
from cold drafts, when ventilation is given. 

If it be desired to use the under-bench system, 
it will require to heat a house one hundred and 
fifty feet long and twenty feet wide, having one 
center and two side benches, a three inch flow and 
four one and one-half inch returns under each 
side bench. In a combination of over-head and 
under-bench piping, about the same amount of 
pipe is required as for each of the other two 
methods. 

Generally speaking, the rules for the arrange- 
ments of pipes can be used in all kinds of houses, 
modified, of course, to suit the various conditions. 

Ever}^ flow and return pipe should have a 
valve, so as to shut a portion of the heat off, on 
warm days. 



130 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

THE EXPANSION TANK. 

This is a reservoir into which the surplus 
water runs as it is heated and expands. It 
should be raised as high as possible, and con- 
nected with the mains, by a pipe, in size propor- 
tional to the extent of the system. The tank 
may be made of galvanized iron, without a cover, 
with the expansion pipe connected at the bottom, 
and an overflow attached near the top, or a close 
tank may be used. A regular riveted boiler may 
be used for this, with the same connections, and 
also a water gauge and safety valve. 

When the closed tank is used it need not be 
elevated so high, as must the open tank in order 
to produce the desired pressure. 

" The closed tank has the same effect as does 
the elevated one, and merely raises the point to 
which the water can be heated without forming 
steam. One advantage of this is that, when water 
is carried at 220°, much less heating pipe is 
required than when it is only 160'', but a serious 
objection to this is that it now has one of the 
faults of steam, as, at this temperature, more heat 
will be carried up the chimney with the products 
of combustion, than when the water is 180°. It 
is an excellent plan to have the house supplied 
with sufficient radiating surface to maintain the 
required temperature in the average winter 
weather with an open tank, but to have the sys- 



HE^ATING BY HOT WATER. 131 

tein provided with a safety valve, which could 
be thrown on when it became necessary, in order 
to keep up the temperature when the thermome- 
ter goes down below zero." 



CHAPTER XVIIL 
HEATING WITH STEAM. 

•^T^HE advocates for steam heating claim that 
J^ the first cost of construction is forty per 
cent less than in the hot water system, this has 
reference, however, to the old style in which the 
four inch pipes were used. In systems where 
the small pipes and closed tank are employed, 
the cost is not any more, but there is a loss in 
fuel as it is necessary to maintain a higher 
pressure. 

The steam system should not be used in small 
establishments where a fireman is not employed 
both night and day ; for if the water in the 
boiler be allowed to fall below 212°, steam will 
go down and the pipes immediately cool off, 
often causing great loss. 

PIPING FOR STEAH. 

This does not vary to any considerable extent 
from the small pipe hot water arrangement. As 
before stated, almost all vegetables thrive best 
in houses heated by a combination of overhead 
and under-bench piping. The flow as well as the 
returns should not have any slight depressions 
or elevations, but the slope should be uniform 

132 



HEATING WITH STEAM. 133 

throughout All the pipes should slope toward 
the boiler, in order to return the condensed 
steam. The returns should be connected to one 
large pipe which enters the boiler at the bottom. 
Each strand of return pipe should contain a 
shut-off valve and an air cock. 

AMOUNT OF PIPE.* 

The amount of pipe both for mains and 
coils will be much less than when hot water is 
used. For the main it can be reckoned that a 
i^ inch pipe will supply 200 sq. ft. of radiation. 

2 inch pipe will supply 400 sq. ft. of radiation. 
2j^ inch pipe will supply 800 sq. ft. of radiation. 

3 inch pipe will supply 1600 sq. ft. of radiation. 

4 inch pipe will supply 3200 sq. ft. of radiation. 
The surface of the steam pipes is from thirty to 
forty per cent warmer than that of hot water 
pipes, and a corresponding decrease of the neces- 
sary radiating surface can be made. 

For low pressure steam, in addition to the 
mains, a house will require for each one thous- 
and square feet of glass, to warm it to 45° to 50°, 
140 square feet or 300 linear feet i % inch pipe ; 
50° to 60°, 175 square feet or 400 linear feet 1% 
inch pipe; 60° to 70°, 225 square feet or 500 lin- 
ear feet I yl inch pipe. 

With high pressure, a considerable reduction 
can be made from the above. 



Greenhouse Construction by Taft. 



134 VEGETABI.E FORCING. 

In figuring the capacity of a boiler, about fif- 
teen feet of heating (fire) surface should be reck- 
oned as one horse power, and in estimating the 
radiation it will suppl3^ from fifty to ninety 
square feet of radiation per horse power, accord- 
ing to the pressure, may be relied upon with a 
good boiler. If we consider that for a tempera- 
ture of fifty degrees, which may be taken as 
about the average, one square foot of radiating 
surface will take care of six square feet of glass, 
one horse power will be sufficient for 300 to 540 
square feet of glass. x\s in the case with hot 
water heaters, a large steam boiler will handle 
more glass to a square foot of glass than a small 
one. 

The size of grate for a given glass area will 
also depend upon the draft of the chimney, the 
skill of the fireman, and the method of stoking 
used. With a poor draft a much smaller amount 
of coal can be burned, per square foot of grate, 
than when the draft is strong, and a grate con- 
siderably larger than in the latter case will be 
required ; the same is true of a dirty fire as com- 
pared with a clean one. For establishments with 
less than 10,000 to 12,000 square feet of glass, a 
night fireman can hardly be afforded, and a large 
grate should be used upon which a slow fire can 
be burned that will last from six to ten hours. 
For this purpose the grate should have an area 



HEATING WITH STEAM. 135 

of from fifteen to eighteen or even twent}^ feet, 
according to climate and other modifying condi- 
tions. On the other hand, when a strong draft 
can be secnred, and in large establishments, 
where a night fireman is employed, one square 
foot of grate will readily handle one thousand 
square feet of glass. In other words, a steam 
boiler with twelve square feet of grate can be 
made to heat with economy 12,000 square feet of 
glass under favorable conditions, eight square 
feet of grate wall heat a house containing the 
same amount of glass to fifty degrees. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
SUB-IRRIGATION. 

WITHIN the last few years the watering of 
greenhouses has been greatly faciliated 
by means of sub-irrigation. The idea was 
originated by Mr. W. S. Turner, ex-assistant 
Horticulturist at the Ohio Experiment Station. 
His experiments were followed by Mr. Rane of 
the West Virginia Station. 

In order to sub-irrigate the bed should be 
made solid and water tight, or as nearl}' so as 
possible. This can be done by using tongue and 
ground plank for the bottom of the bed. After 
the plank has been made secure, they should 
receive a thick coat of white lead, being thor- 
oughly rubbed into the cracks. Common inch 
boards may be used by covering them with a 
thin coat of cement, this makes a very durable 
bed, and is entirely water tight. When the beds 
are built up from the ground they can be made 
w^ater-tight by filling in the bottom with five or 
six inches of stiff cla^^, it being thoroughly 
packed down either by tramping with the feet or 
pounding with some heav}' article. Strings of 
two inch tile are used to distribute the water 
through the bed. One end of the last tile in 

136 



SUB-IRRIGATION. 137 

each row is placed on the board forming the end 
of the bed so as to leave an opening in which to 
pour the water. The rows of tile should be 
about two feet apart. When the beds are very 
wide, the water may be distributed much more 
evenly, if the tile are run crosswise in the bed, 
thus making the runs of water short. When 
the tile is run lengthwise, it requires particular 
leveling and adjusting of bench and tile line, so 
that the water will neither rush too freely at 
first, nor be carried too fast to the further end. 
One and one-fourth inch gas pipe may be used 
in place of the tile. Small holes are drilled in the 
pipe four or five inches apart, alternately on op- 
posite sides. The further end is partially closed 
b}^ a wooden plug with a small hole through it, 
on the other end is placed an elbow and funnel 
to receive the water, or it may be connected di- 
rectly to the water supply. In this case, when 
the bed needs water, all that is necessary is to 
open the valve until the bed is sufficiently wet, 
which is not any considerable length of time. 
This is a great saving of labor and expensive. 
In amateur houses, where the watering is done 
overhead by the ordinary garden sprinkler, it is 
a very tedious task. In sub-irrigation we simply 
pour the water into the funnel, or turn the valve, 
and the work is not only done, but is done well. 
By this method of application we can use any 
kind of liquid fertilizers we wish, which can not 



138 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

satisfactorily de done b}^ the old over-head meth- 
od. Where surface irrigation is followed, the 
beds are never thoroughly wet. Two or three 
bucket fulls of water sprinkled on in the usual 
manner, will make quite a large bed appear 
soaked, while, in fact, the water has not reached 
beyond an inch in depth, leaving the lower por- 
tions without any moisture whatever. This cau- 
ses the dirt in the bottom of the bed to become 
so dry and hard that it is impossible for the roots 
of the plant to penetrate it. Even if they could 
penetrate it they would not receive any food 
from soil in this condition, for " all plant food 
must be in a liquid form before it can be assimi- 
lated by the plaat." On a bed, where one bucket 
full of water applied to the surface, would render 
it apparently quite wet, you can turn in five or 
six bucket fulls through under-ground pipes, 
without bringing moisture enough for a respect- 
able show to the surface. 

Almost every one without exception, would 
apply a greater quantity of water by sub-irriga- 
tion than by the old method of surface watering. 
This abundant supply of water is what causes 
the great increase in the growth of certain green- 
house crops observed as the result of sub-irriga- 
tion. It is surprising what large quantities of 
water lettuce will take and delight in. Amateurs 
never give it enough to promote the most rapid 



SUB-IRRIGATION. 139 

growth possible. With the new arrangement 
this is different. The application does not 
quickly show on the surface, and consequently 
it is naturally more abundant than under the old 
method. The roots of the plants are kept well 
supplied with moisture all the time and the 
growth, therefore, is rapid and healthy. 

The effect of sub-irrigation upon the growth of 
lettuce and radishes is very remarkable, some 
claim an increase of 50 per cent. On tomatoes 
the effect is not so marked, although there is 
quite a noticeable increase in the growth and 
productiveness. The effect on cucumbers is decid- 
edly beneficial. Sub-irrigated radishes come to a 
marketable size earlier and are larger than those 
grown by ordinary method. The difference 
in earliness is more marked than the total in- 
crease in weight. Nearly all of the radishes 
grown on a sub-irrigated bed, are sold before any 
of those grown on surface w^atered beds are 
ready to pull. The less time required for a crop 
to mature, the more crops can be taken from the 
same space during a certain length of time. 

Summing up, we have the following in favor 
of sub-irrigation : — 

"' ist. It is the most complete and satisfactory 
method of watering. 

2nd. The surface soil never becomes hardened. 

3rd. Beds never dry out or bake on the bottom. 

'" Market Garden. 



140 VEGETABIvE FORCING. 

4th. The appearance of the bed is not deceiv- 
ing as is sometimes the case in surface watered 
beds. 

5th. Plants grow more evenly than under the 
old method. 

6th. Fungus diseases are checked, or are en- 
tirely prevented. 

7th. A great saving of time. 

8th. A great saving of labor. 

9th. The soil can be worked at all times, and 
thus kept in better condition. 

loth. Less water is required. 

nth. The beds require watering once a week, 
while surface irrigation generally needs it daily. 

1 2th. The yearly expense to keep in repair is 
very small. 

13th. The pipe or tile serves both to water 
the beds and to retain the excessive moisture. 

14th. The openings beneath the soil allow free 
access of the air ; hence the soil never becomes 
sour or stagnant. 

15th. Parsley was ready for market when it was 
only one-third grown on the surface watered beds. 

1 6th. There was a marked gain in the product- 
iveness of tomatoes. 

17th. Long- rooted radishes proved superior. 

i8th. Lettuce is from 30 to 50 per cent better. 

19th Lettuce rot is prevented to a great extent. 

20th. Spinach matures earlier. 

2ist. Cucumbers show a marked increase. 



CHAPTER XX. 
THE WATER BENCH. 

IN my estimation, no greenhouse, especially a 
vegetable house, is complete unless it has 
a good water bench. 

All growers of plants from seed (that is small 
seed), know the inconvenience of watering newl}^ 
sown seed, the greatest care being necessar}/ to 
avoid washing the cover from the seed and leaving 
them exposed. It also requires no small amount 
of skill to water small seedling plants without 
injury, as it is almost impossible to keep from 
knocking them over, especiall}^ if the watering 
is done with a hose attached to a hydrant or force 
pump, or if the ordinary garden sprinkler is 
used. 

It is very undesirable to have the seed "washed 
out" as it retards germination, in fact, a large 
amount of seed will not germinate at all unless 
they are covered. The covering holds moisture 
and a seed cannot sprout without moisture. This 
trouble has been overcome by the introduction of 
The Water Bench, which is simply a water-tight 
bench, and is constructed on the same plan as 
benches used for sub-irrigation. Generally 
speaking, it is just a continuation of a sub-irre- 

141 



142 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

gated bed, partitioned off by a water-tight par- 
tition to keep the soil and water separated. The 
sides should not be over three or four inches 
high, this makes it more convenient for handling 
the flats. It is not necessary to devote any 
more space to the water bench than is required 
for seed recently sown, and young plants in flats, 
nor is it needful to have the bench located in the 
best part of the house. The water bench may 
be placed under a bed of growing plants, this 
does very well for seed flats, but plants will not 
live very long in the dark. The best is to con- 
struct a water bench in a part of the house that 
is to be devoted to young plants, and immediately 
under the first bench put in another of the same 
dimensions. 

The second, or lower bench, is to be used for 
germinating seeds, and little or no light is re- 
quired. A space of about twelve or fifteen inches 
should be left between the benches, so as to give 
plenty of room to pass the flats in and out easily. 

When it is necessar}^ to water the flats con- 
taining newly sown seed, or young plants just 
transplanted, or plants too small to be pricked 
off, the}^ are transfered to the water bench, which 
should have about three inches of water in it, 
and allowed to remain until they are thoroughly 
soaked, but not long enough for the soil to be- 
come mortar-like or pasty. 



THE WATER BENCH. 143 

The flats in which seeds are sown ma}- be kept 
in the lower bench until the seed germinates and 
the young plants appear, but should not be kept 
in the dark after this for any length of time, as 
loss would surely be the result. In the upper 
water bench plants may be kept as long as de- 
sired, and watered as often as need be. But by 
moving the flats from the bench as soon as they 
are thorougly wet, a smaller water bench can be 
used. 

This method of watering young plants and 
seed flats is very satisfactory^ as it saves labor 
and prevents injury. Not only can the soil be 
thoroughly and evenly watered is this manner, 
but there is no danger of washing out the seed, 
nor knocking over young plants. This method 
is especially applicable to small and delicate seeds. 

The water bench may also be used for 
watering cabbage plants, strawberry plants,, 
tomato plants, etc., for outdoor purposes. Even 
if there is a large number to be watered it can 
be done about as cheap, if not cheaper, than by 
the old method, and most undoubtedly is more 
thorough. In the summer time it is quite diffi- 
cult to germinate seeds successfully where sur- 
face watering is practiced, but by this plan suc- 
cess is certain. 



PART III 



HOT BEDS 



AND 



COLD FRAMES, 



CHAPTER XXL 
HOT BEDS. 

HOT beds, although I do not consider them 
near so economical or convenient in the 
long run as forcing-houses, play an important 
part with the amateur, who, as a general 
rule, is not over-supplied with money. There- 
fore, as the first cost of construction is so 
much less than that for forcing houses, they are 
his only or chief resort. Not only is the mate- 
rial used in their construction inexpensive, but 
they are so simple in structure, that it is not 
necessary to employ a carpenter, and pay him 
three or four dollars per day, to build them. 
Any man with ordinary intelligence is carpenter 
enough to put them together. 

LOCATION. 

The selection of the site for the hot-beds is of 
no small importance. They should be built in as 
warm a place as can be found, that is within 
convenient distance from the dwelling, or green- 
houses if there \ be any. A south or southeast- 
ernly slope, is desirable, especially if there is a 
natural protection from the northwest winds. 
If there is no^natural protection, it will be neces- 

145 



146 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

sary to build a tight board fence, not less than 
six feet high, on the north and west sides of the 
beds. But if it so happens, that there is a close, 
tall hedge, or buildings of any description, that 
stand in such a position as to be used for pro- 
tection, so much the better. 

Another thing to be considered, is the charac- 
ter of the soil on which the beds are to be built. 
If it is not loose and dry, /. <?,, having a natural 
drainage, artificial means should be resorted to. 

USES OF HOT=BEDS. 

•The chief purpose for which hot-beds are con- 
structed, is the production of plants for early 
spring planting, when a supply has not been 
wintered over in the cold frames. Hot-beds are, 
also, used for various other purposes, of which the 
forcing of lettuce is the most important. Dur- 
ing the spring months this crop is generally 
scarce, and good prices are commended. Very 
often the first crop of hot-bed lettuce brings 
about three dollars per sash. 

The first crop is planted in the bed, fifty 
plants under each sash, about the first week in 
January. This crop will mature the first week 
in March, when another crop can be planted ; 
the second crop will not be so profitable as the 
first, however, as the crop from cold frames will 
be in market by the time it has come to market- 
able size. 



HOT BEDS. 147 

Radishes, cucumbers and beets can also be 
profitably grown in hot-beds. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

The ordinary method is to dig a trench two 
and one-half feet deep, seven feet wide, and as 
long as it is desired to have the bed. The beds 
should all have the same dimensions, so that the 
sash from one bed will fit on the others. The 
beds should be built east and west, and as level 
as possible. x\fter the trench has been dug, set 
posts (gas pipe is preferable to anything else) 
along each side of the trench. These should 
be five feet apart. The row on the north side 
should extend one foot above the level of the 
ground, and the row on the south side six inches 
above. Planks are then placed on the inside of 
the rows of posts and fastened to them by means 
of a wire, run through the boards and around 
the posts, that is, if gas pipes are used ; if not, 
the boards are nailed to the stakes. Planks from 
one to two inches in thickness are generally 
used. If the soil where the beds are built, is of 
a loose nature, it will be necessary to board the 
trench up to keep the walls from "caving in," 
this will also prevent rats, mice and moles from 
getting into the bed. 

When the frame is in place and made secure, 
a strip of inch board, wide enough to serve as 



148 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

rest for the edges of two sash, and having an 
upright strip in the center, should be fastened 
across the bed where each two sashes meet. 

PREPARING THE BED. 

The simple principles involved in the prepara- 
tion of manure for hot-beds, is to most garden- 
ers a very m3^sterious subject. "Many growers 
fear the uncertainties connected with this method 
of heating beds. The yeast fungus, which is 
the cause of fermentation, if once introduced in- 
to a manure heap suitable to its growth, spreads 
quite rapidly and soon has the whole mass in a 
state of heat." 

Fresh manure from the horse stable, mixed 
with half its bulk of urine soaked litter or leaves 
from the woods makes the best heating material. 
It is richer than most any other kind of manure, 
especially if the horses have been highly fed on 
grain, bran, oil meal, etc. The best substitute 
for horse manure is sheep droppings, or a mix- 
ture of the two will give good results. 

In order to thoroughly mix and get the 
manure to an even temperature throughout, it 
should be drawn to some convenient place near 
the beds, and thrown in a conical pile. In a few 
days it will begin to heat, which will be indicated 
by the escape of steam from the heap, it should 
then be forked over and thoroughly shaken up^ 



HOT BEDS. 149 

and the lumps torn apart. In turning, care 
should be taken to throw the manure that was 
on the outside of the pile into the center of the 
new heap just being formed. If in two or three 
days the heap is again fermenting nicely, as it 
should if it has received the proper treatment, it 
is ready to be placed in the bed. 

If the manure is already very hot tread it 
down firmly; but if fermentation has only just 
begun, leave the manure loose and fill up clear 
to the top of frames. After fermentation has 
again become active it should be leveled off where 
needed, and tramped down solid. 

The bed is now ready for the soil, which 
should have been previously prepared so as to 
put it on at once in order to be warmed by the 
heat coming from the manure. '' Soil to be in 
the best condition for this purpose, should have 
been prepared the previous fall. '•' '"'' '■' It must 
be rich and'fine, and consist of about one-third 
well rotted compost and two-thirds good loam, 
rotton turf, &c." 



CHAPTER XXII. 

COLD FRAMES. 

''/^OLD frames are simple affairs — box-like 
^^ structures covered with sashes." The 
construction of cold frames is very much the 
same as for hot-beds, about the only difference 
is in the depth. No manure is used in cold 
frames, that is for heating purposes, therefore 
the excavation is only from six to ten inches 
deep. They should be built in the same plot 
with the hot-beds, running east and west, or 
north and south, according to couture of the 
land. One of the principle uses to which cold 
frames are put, is the wintering over of snch 
plants as cabbage, cauliflower, etc. 

THE SASH 

For cold frames and hot-beds are the most ex- 
pensive part in their construction. Owing to 
the large demand for these sash, various factories 
throughout the United States have provided 
themselves with special machinery b}/ which 
they are manufactured in large quantities, and 
can be ordered through almost any general sup- 
ply store. The average price for these sash, al- 
ready glazed and painted, is something less 

150 



COLD FRAMES. 151 

than two dollars per sash. Some growers claim 
that it is cheaper to buy the sash unglazed, and 
put the glass in on rainy days and at odd times 
when work is a little scarce. 

This is especially advisable if there is an 
empty building of any kind in which the work 
can be done, as the manufacturers are liable to 
use the cheapest grade of paint and putty they 
can find, and the glass is also more liable to get 
broken in the sash than when boxed up, in ship- 
ping. The number of sash required for market 
gardening, will depend entirely upon the amount, 
and line of work expected to be engaged in. 
For general market gardening, twenty-five to 
thirty sash per acre of ground devoted to the 
business, will suffice; while the gardener who 
expects to raise nothing but such vegetables as 
spinach, lettuce, radishes, carrots, beets, cucum- 
bers, etc., will require eight or ten times this 
amount per acre, and a still larger number 
would be necessary where nothing but plants, to 
sell to other gardeners, are grown. Plant-rais- 
ing often proves quite profitable to those that 
live a short distance from large cities. 

EXTRA COVERING FOR FRAMES AND HOT=BEDS. 

During the colder part of winter, and especial- 
ly when a "cold snap " comes, the beds and 
frames should have some extra covering of some 
sort. 



152 VEGETABLE FORCING. 

Shutters used for additional covering are 
made the same size of the sash. The material 
should be of some kind of light wood, not over 
one-half inch in thickness, white pine is preferr- 
ed to anything else, as it is both light and 
durable. A board one-half inch thick will keep 
out as much cold as a board two inches or more 
in thickness, and are not so expensive, and are 
much more convenient to handle. 

Mats, however, are much more effective, and 
where hot-beds are used, they are almost indis- 
pensable. They can be made by the most 
unskilled workman, and during winter weather 
and rainy days, when there is nothing else to do. 

A supply of long rye, wheat or oat straw, 
should always be kept on hand, and at odd times 
worked up into mats. " Their manufacture is a 
simple thing indeed. Make a frame seven by 
four feet and tightly stretch four or five parallel 
stout tarred strings, ten or twelve inches apart, 
from top to bottom. Have as many balls of 
lighter tarred string, and fasten on to each up- 
right string at the bottom, leaving the balls in 
front of the frame. Now lay a whisk of straw, 
cut sides out, in the junction of the strings at 
the bottom, and fasten it there by twisting each 
of the smaller strings once around the straw and 
the upright string. Next put on another whisk 
of straw, and continue until the frame is full, 
and the mat is finished." 



COLD FRAMES. 153 

Thus during the run of a year, quite a large 
number of these mats can be made. 

The best straw for the purpose, is rye cut be- 
fore the grain has formed, and the gardener that 
has much business about him, will grow a little 
patch of rye, cut and store it away at the proper 
time, to work up in the coming season. 

MANAGEMENT. 

Cold Frames. — If it be desired to winter plants 
over for spring planting, the cold frames should 
be used. In the northern states, the seed of 
cauliflower, cabbage and lettuce should be sown 
in the open ground from the 15th to the 20th of 
September. The seed should not be sown too 
early, as this will cause many of them to run to 
seed and of course they are then useless; again 
if sown too late, cold weather will set in before 
the plants have grown enough to stand the 
winter. 

Within a month from time of sowing the seed, 
the plants will be of sufficient size to be trans- 
planted in the frames. Eight hundred lettuce 
plants, or ^\^ hundred cauliflower or cabbage 
plants, may be set under each three by six foot 
sash. 

These plants are almost hardy, and will stand 
severe freezing without injury. It is not neces- 
sary to put the sash on for a month or six weeks 



154 V^EGETABLE FORCING. 

after transplanting, unless a severe cold spell 
should come for a few days, which is quite often 
the case. If it is necessary to thus temporarily 
protect the plants, care should be taken to re- 
move the sash again, as soon as the weather 
will permit, so as to harden the plants for win- 
ter. During cold weather, even on clear winter 
days, when the temperature is down to fifteen 
degrees in the shade, they should be abundant- 
ly aired by tilting up the sash at the back, or, 
better still, when the day is mild, by taking the 
sash entirely off. If the plants have been 
thoroughly hardened, there is no use for any 
other covering but the sash, except during ex- 
treme cold weather, when the thermometer falls 
to 15° below zero. In the spring when the 
weather has moderated, and it is not necessary 
to keep the sash on the plants, the sash are 
placed on frames that have been covered up 
with straw or leaves in sufficient depth to keep 
the ground from freezing, so that they may be got 
at and be in condition to be planted in lettuce by 
the end of February or first of March. After 
the soil in the frames has been well enriched by 
mixing in about three inches of well rotted ma- 
nure, fifty lettuce plants are set under each 
sash. After the plants are set they require but 
little attention ; the only thing to attend to is 
to give plenty of air, and on mild, rainy days to 



COLD FRAMES. 155 

remove the sash entirely, so that the beds may 
receive a thorough wetting. 

A crop of lettuce thus grown will be fit for 
market in about six weeks from the time of 
transplanting. After the lettuce has been taken 
from the frames, which will be about the 15th 
of May, cucumber plants are taken from the 
forcing-house or hot-bed, and planted in the 
frames, four or five under each sash. The sash 
are left on until June, when the crop begins to 
be sold. 

The cucumber, being a tropical plant, requires 
a w^armer temperature than lettuce, and is very 
sensitive to cold, but on warm days airing 
should never be neglected, as the sun's rays 
would raise the temperature under the glass 
to such an extent as to injure, if not entirely 
destroy, the crop. 

Hot-Beds. — Immediately after the heating ma- 
terial and soil have been placed in the bed, it 
should be covered with sash and be kept closed 
until the heat rises; at this time a thermometer 
plunged in the heating material, should indi- 
cate 100°, but this is too hot for almost any 
vegetable growth. Operations of sowing or 
planting in the hot-bed should not be commenc- 
ed until the intense heat and rank steam caused 
by fermentation, has subsided, which it will do 
in about three days. Beginners often lose the 



l-^^ VEGETABLE FORCING. 

first crop^ owing to their impatience to get the 
beds planted. 

Hot-beds are used for various purposes. One 
of the most important uses is the forcing of let- 
tuce. The plants are taken from the cold frames 
and planted in the hot-bed, fifty under each sash^ 
the first crop by second week in January. Under 
proper management the first crop will be ready 
for market by the first of March, giving plenty 
of time for another crop to be grown in the same 
bed. The bed, however, b}^ this time is no 
longer a hot-bed, the manure having become ex- 
hausted, and it is treated exactly as a cold frame. 

Another use to which hot-beds are put is the 
raising of tomato, egg and pepper plants. The 
seed should be sown about March loth, with 
temperature the same as before described. In 
sowing, it is well not to cover the seed more than 
a quarter of an inch, with some very light mold ; 
leaf mold and sand are very desirable, firming 
it gentl}^ with a board. 

Close attention to airing during the hot part 
of the da}', and covering up at night, is essential, 
and also that the soil be kept moist, but not 
soaked. 

The night temperature may range from fifty 
five to sixty-five, and in the day time from 
seventy to eighty degrees. 

As soon as the seedlings are about an inch 
high they should be taken up and transplanted 



COIvD FRAMES. 157 

into a more extensive hot-bed, for they now be- 
gin to develope and require more room. One 
hundred plants may be set under a sash. After 
transplanting they should receive a thorough 
watering, and also, shaded from the sun until 
they have struck root, which will be in two or 
three days. 

Hot-beds are also used for growing cabbage, 
cauliflower and lettuce, for out door spring 
planting, when a supply has not been wintered 
over in the cold frames. The seeds are sown in 
February or March, according to latitude of the 
grower, and treated the same as tomatoes, &c., 
with the exception that a slightly cooler tempera- 
ture be maintained. 



Clear Cypress 
Greenhouse © Material. 

We carry in stock many different desig-ns of Rafters, Sash 
Bars and everything- else from the bottom of g-utters up. 
Our facilities are large, and we are prepared to furnish on 
short notice material of our own desig^ns or any special 
desig-ns, and all of open-air-dried clear Cypress Lumber. 
Every foot of our stock is g-uaranteed Spot Clear. Write 
for circulars and estimates. No trouble to furnish plans 
when necessary. 

We build Greenhouses complete 

And, having had wide experience we know all the re- 
quisites and g-uarantee superior construction, 

l/ockland I/umber Co., 

l/ockland, Ohio. 

E. HIPPARD. 

Manufacturer and Patentee 
. . . of the . . . 

New Standard Ventilating 

Machinery and 

Greenhouse Appliances. 



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